eChapters

Traditionally, Labour Laws have a protective function consisting of established standards both to protect workers in their workplace and to provide them a basic minimum level of living conditions. Alongwith this function, there also existed in most systems, a legal framework for the regulation of industrial relations between employers and workers. These functions had their impact on problems of development. The emphasis was more on labour legislation for its own sake, development being a separate proposition. This mutual lack of concern was perhaps due to historical factors. The most important aspect is the fact that in developed countries of the Western world, labour legislation followed the emergence of industrialization and in response to a demand for economic and social betterment of the workers, whereas in developing countries the emergence of labour laws preceded industrial growth.

Proximate analysis: Weende’s system is followed. Weende was a small village in Germany, near the University of Goettingen at that time (1860), when this system was developed by Hanneburg and Stohmann. Although it is neither true nor approximate, but somewhere in the middle, that is, proximate analysis of the various parameters for assessment purpose; it gives information about the quality of feeding stuff and still followed.

General Views about Weende’s System of Analysis

A team of scientists under the leardship of Henneberg and Stohmann of (University of Göttingen, Germany) developed proximate principles analysis system in the sixties of last century at Weende’s Experimental Station (Germany), located at the University of Göttingen. Main components of different fractions in the proximate analysis of foods are moisture, ash, crude protein, ether extract, crude fiber, and nitrogen-free-extract. These workers emphasized that carbohydrates could be grouped into: (1) the starches and the sugars, and (2) coarse fibrous fractions. Later on an insoluble residue after boiling the fat free food sample first with dilute acid and then with dilute alkali was obtained based on the acid stomach digestion and the subsequent alkaline intestinal digestion of consumed food. At the end of digestion insoluble organic residue was denoted as crude fiber.

Two German scientists Henneberg and Stohmann working at the Weende Experimental Station, Germany devised proximate principles analysis system in 1860’s for routine description of animal feedstuffs. Therefore this system is also known as Weende system of analysis. Proximate analysis is a system of expressing the nutrient composition of a feed. The principle of analysis is to separate the nutrient present in the feedstuffs into various fractions, as proximate principles, which are six i.e. moisture, ash, crude protein, ether extract, crude fibre and nitrogen free extract.

Water (Moisture)

The moisture is determined as the loss in weight which results from drying a known weight of feed to constant weight at 100°C. Therefore, dry matter is estimated as a part of substance that does not evaporate at 100°C. The major difference in nutritional value on as fed basis is traceable to moisture content and dry matter. Calculation of relative cost of nutritional value involves consideration of moisture content.

Introduction

Pruning is the practise of cutting back, shaping, or removing branches, shoots, or leaves from plants in order to improve their overall health, regulate their development, make them seem nicer, or increase their output. Thinking about the plant’s requirements, growth habits, and intended results is essential in this horticulture discipline. Pruning is an essential tool in arboriculture, gardening, and agriculture; its use varies from plant to plant and from purpose to goal, from encouraging strong development to improving the plant’s aesthetic appeal. In the grand scheme of things, pruning is a deliberate action taken to improve the health and productivity of plants in their natural habitats.

Pruning is a regular part of plant maintenance involving the selective removal of specific plant parts. Although shoots and branches are the main targets for removal, roots, flower buds, fruits and seed pods may also be pruned. Pruning wounds plants, but plants respond differently to wounding than do animals. In plants, damaged areas are covered by callus tissue to close wounds. Another response to pruning occurs inside plants. Chemical boundaries form around wounded areas, walling off or compartmentalizing the wounds. Compartmentalization limits any decay that results from wounding, or from the natural death of branches. Use pruning techniques that minimize plant wounding and speed wound closure.

5.1 Pruning
One of the most crucial aspects of mulberry farming is pruning. It involves methodically cutting off some branches in order to give the mulberry plants a manageable size and form as well as to encourage the bud to sprout and develop new branches. The primary goal of pruning is to increase leaf output and quality. In addition, it is used to harvest the shoots for silkworm rearing and to do various inter-cultivation tasks including weeding, ploughing, applying manure and fertilizer and proper timing of the rearing of silkworms. To prune without breaking the bark or stem, use a sharp secateur, pruning saw or sickle. The plants in rainfed environments are only ever trimmed once a year, at a height of 10–20 cm above the ground level in June or July when the monsoon season begins. After that the plants are let to grow into bushes with many branches till the next year. Leaf harvesting is limited to the leaf picking method.
a) Pruning Types: Pruning is categorized according to the height of the stem at which it is cut. Bottom pruning is the practice of cutting the main stem at ground level after each harvest so as not to allow a stump to emerge. When low-cut pruning is used, the main stump of the plant is developed by cutting it 10 to 30 centimetres above the ground. At around 60 and 100 centimetres above the ground, medium and high cut pruning is performed respectively.

In recent years, pseudocereals and alternative cereal substitutes are gaining attention from agriculture, processing and consumer point of views. The 14 justification for such changes can be found in the recent thought of reextending the range of starch rich seeds available in human diet, because from world-wide perspective cereals consumption is largely restricted to the cereals wheat, rice and maize (Venskutonis and Kraujalis, 2013). In upcoming years, the increase in population can lead to an unfavorable pressure on agriculture and nutrition needs.

Introduction
World food security has become largely dependent only on a handful of crops like; wheat, rice, and corn which are the major cereals that support more than 50% of the global calorie demand. While these grains are an essential part of various diets, however they are devoid of essential micronutrients. As a result, it is estimated that micronutrient deficiency affects an estimated 2 billion people worldwide raising health concerns over our high dependence on cereal crops. As agriculture sector is considered as backbone of nation and therefore utilizing a handful of crops have placed the global food security at risk. In this context, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has identified many plants as under-utilized, which can significantly contribute for improving nutrition and health, enhance food basket and livelihoods, future food security and sustainable development (FAOSTAT, 2023). These underutilized crops offer an immense potential in the functional food sector to combat hidden hunger crisis and offer the options of income generation.
Cereals such as rice, maize and wheat are monocots and belong to family Poaceae, however buckwheat, chia, quinoa and amaranthus although resembles with cereals are dicots and are categorized as Pseudocereals. These crops have been placed under the category of important crops by UNESCO due to dwindling cultivation and exploitation in the wild besides, these pseudocereals has gained a worldwide importance in the nutraceutical industry due to the rich nutritional profile compared to cereals and are considered as crops of the 21st century (Pirzadah et al., 2020). These are enriched with various active principals such as; polyphenols, flavonoids, amino acids, dietary fibre, lignans, vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, unsaturated fatty acids and other essential components like fagopyritols. The protein quality and quantity in pseudocereals is far better compared to cereals and this property qualifies their entry into the functional food industry (Rodriguez et al., 2020). Pseudocereals are rich in amino acids such as; arginine, tryptophan, lysine and histidine that proved essential for infant and child health thus, projected pseudocereals as an appropriate food supplement for child nutrition. The food production agro-systems must be adapted to climate change to ensure food security and stability. However, pseudocereals are climate resilient crops and can be grown even on marginal lands that are not fit for cereals thus, are considered as future crops to tackle mal-nutrition and future food crises. To explore these neglected or lost crops, there is an increasing interest in research and development that needs heightened direction and focus (Mabhaudhi et al., 2019). In this context, there is a need to adopt recent biotechnological interventions for the crop improvement and domestication of pseudocereal crops. This chapter focuses on nutritional profile of emerging pseudocereals viz., Buckwheat, Chia, Quinoa and Grain amaranth, phylogeny, genetic resources, breeding behavior and advanced breeding methods and their integration into the global food system

Ever since the dawn of civilization, dependence on plants has been indispensable for human survival. Transformation from food gathering to settled agriculture necessitated domestication of plant species useful for mankind leading to co-evolution of plants and man in absolute harmony with nature. Natural disasters like famines, floods, epidemics have often led people to search new plant species for human consumption. Out of an estimated total of 80,000 plants of possible economic use, about 30,000 plants have been found to be edible in nature and approximately 7,000 plants have been cultivated by mankind at one time or the other, of which only 158 plants are widely used for food (Wilson, 1992). Among these, 30 crops provide 90% of the world’s food and only 10 crops supply 75% of the world’s food budget. Out of the above only three crops, rice, wheat and maize provide 60% of the world’s total food requirement (Paroda, 2000). This dangerously narrow level of food base may imperil the existence of mankind during a time of impending crisis in unforeseen times in the future.

Lucke (1862) first described that the bluish green discolouration of surgical dressing is associated with the presence of small vibrio like organisms. Latter Gessard first isolated the organism as Pseudomonas in 1882.

Properties of Genus

1. Morphology : They are Gram negative straight or curved rod, motile by one or more polar flagella. Usually it is 1.5 µm in length and 0.5 µm in width. Longer filamentous forms are sometimes observed. The bacteria are non- acid fast, non- sporulating and uncapsulated. Pili on the bacterial surface are detected. Environmental and strains present within tissue can produce slime. The slime is composed of glycolipoprotein (GLP) and polysaccharide of LPS.
    
2. They are strict aerobe.

Classification : Pseudomonas belongs to class Gamma-Proteobacteria, order- Pseudomonadales, family- Pseudomonadaceae.  Previously Pseudomonas included two group of bacteria viz. Fluorescent group and Pseudomallei group. Recent classification system included this Pseudomallei group into a new genus known as Burkholderia. Important species of Pseudomonas are:

History
Pseudomonas is comprised of two Greek words-Pseudo meaning false and Monas meaning unit, so literally the term means “false unit”. However Pseudomonas is a real bacteria so we really do not know the basis of the nomenclature by Walter Migula. A scientist by the name of Migula gave the Genus name of Pseudomonas in 1894 to these bacteria. Classification
The classification of Pseudomonas is given below:
• Class : Gamma Proteobacteria
• Order : Pseudomonadales
• Family : Pseudomonadaceae
• Genus : Pseudomonas
• Eight groups : P. aeruginosa ; P. chlororaphis; P. fluorescens;
P.pertucinogena; P.putida; P. stutzeri; P. syringae; P.
incertae sedis.
The family has 191 valid species. These include bacteria which are saprophytic, free living, and human, animal and plant pathogens. The type species is Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Usual Habitat
Pseudomonas species are environmental organisms which occur worldwide in water and soil, and on plants. Pseudomonas aeruginasa is also found on the skin, on mucous membranes and in faeces. Burkholderia pseudomallei, which is found in soils, occasionally infectsanimals and man. Wild rodents can act as reservoirs of this organism. It is widely distributed in some tropical and subtropical regions of Southeast Asia and Australia.Although B.mallei can survive in the environment for upto 6 weeks its reservoir is infected Equidae.

This is characterized by formation of erythematous papules or patches with clear margins and covered with white scales, in different parts of the body without any constitutional disturbances.

It is more common among young adults of either sex and occasionally a family history is present. This has a seasonal prevalence often appearing in winter and clearing up in summer.

The course in chronic is very obstinate and tends to recur after an apparent cure. It disappears without leaving scars or pigmentation. It is not infectious.

The epithelial layer is thickened and intercappilary processes and papillae are elongated, the horny layer is defective and there is cellular infiltration between the horny cells and blood vessels.

1. INTRODUCTION

The numbers of plant products that influence the nervous system are many and particular group that act on central nervous system by influencing neurotransmitters or endorphins are treated as psychoactive plants. Psychoactive drugs that act on the central nervous system are very much involved in psychiatry. The range of effect is wide for these plants and they can be divided into three categories viz.,

• Stimulants, which excite and enhance psycho motor activity.
• Depressants which reduce mental and physical performance and
• Hallucinogens which are capable of inducing dream like state.

A wide range of plant derivatives are involved in these mind altering drugs.

The psychological sets that can be barriers to communication can be characterized into several basic categories. These sets can occur in the sender or in the receiver in the communication process. The sender has the ability to recognize these barrier categories when they occur and to transform communication to overcome them. However, the receiver is a different story. If the receiver is interested in communication, he or she can recognize when these barriers arise and can consciously overcome them. On the other hand, when a receiver is passive in the communication process, he or she does not recognize the barriers and the sender can do little to overcome the blockage.

These days, the concept of psychological well-being has gained more impetus in the field of health and positive psychology. Ever since research has paid more attention to ‘quality of life,’ psychological well-being has become popular. However, less importance has been given to the conceptual development of its construct, thus creating confusion between terms which at first appear similar: psychological well-being, subjective well-being, quality of life, satisfaction in life, happiness, and mental health.

The concept of psychological well-being is related to mental, emotional, and social health. Ever since research has started in this area, psychologists have started paying more attention to ‘quality of life,’ and hence psychological well-being has acquired more importance. But less importance has been paid to the conceptual development of its construct. As mental health is related to psychological well-being, it is essential to study psychological well-being.

Psychological well-being includes general well-being, quality of life, satisfaction in life, happiness, and mental health. Quality of life and subjective life satisfaction are measures of an individual’s perceived level of psychological well-being and happiness. It is sometimes used as a synonym for subjective happiness and general well-being. Psychological well-being is also related to another variable, such as ‘self-concept’. Self-concept may be stated as the quality of perceptions that each person has of himself, and this self-identity or self-image plays an important role in the psychological functioning of human well-being.

Many attempts have been made in the past to measure positive mental and emotional health, only one of which is the measure of a subjective, general sense of psychological well-being. Attempts over the years have been made to find out more about its correlates.

5.1 Introduction

The medium used in various unit operations of food process engineering such as heating, cooling, drying, mixing and transport processes, is moist air, which is a mixture of two substances. One of these is dry air which itself is a mixture of number of gases and the other is water vapour which may exist in a saturated or superheated state. The properties of moist air are called psychrometric properties and the subject, which involves determination of thermodynamic properties of moist air, is known as psychrometry. Thus, psychrometry is that branch of engineering science, which deals with the study of moist air i.e. dry air mixed with water vapour or humidity. Knowledge of properties of moist air is imperative in design of systems such as air- conditioning equipment for storage of fresh produce, dryers for drying of cereal grains, and cooling towers in food processing plants. In this chapter, important thermodynamic properties used in psychrometric computations are defined. Psychrometric charts useful in determining such properties are presented. In addition, various psychrometric process used in food process engineering are discussed.

1. Introduction

Pteridophytes consist of ferns and their allies and are one of the oldest groups of plants on the earth, and they are commonly known as vascular cryptogams. Pteridophytes have a long history of evolution and were the dominant group of plants during the carboniferous period. The ferns, which constitute major element of the pteridophytes, preferentially grow in shade, moist habitats with moderate temperature but also occur throughout from high altitude in arctic-alpine to rain forests of tropic regions of the world. The most favoured habitat of these plants, however, is tropical mesic environment, where 65% of the living species of fernsthrive vigorously and grow luxuriantly (Page, 1979). Ferns are distinct in having rhizomes, stipes, fronds and are homosporous, whereas the fern allies exhibit scale like leaves and are heterosporous (mega and micro). In ferns, the spore matures into gametophyte that bears both male and female gametangia in a definite pattern. In fern allies, both the mega and microspore mature into female and male gametophyte that bears female and male gametangia, respectively. Pteridophytes are unique in having two different phases-the gametophyte and sporophyte. There has been a wide range of variation in spatial distribution, habitat, growth pattern and morphology of pteridophytes. Fern and fern allies, are comprised of six distantly related classes viz. Lycopodiopsida, Selaginellopsida, Isoetopsida, Equisetopsida, Psiloptopsida and Polypodiopsida (Copeland 1947; Pichi Sermoli 1987).

There are about 12000 species of the pteridophytes belonging to 300 genera in the world, whereas India is represented by about 1200 species (Chandra, 2000). Beddome (1892) during the first quarter of the twentieth century provided a comprehensive account on ferns of British India, and subsequently, Clarke (1880) and Hope (1899, 1900, 1902, 1903, 1904) made significant contributions in taxonomic studies of pteridophytes mainly the ferns of north western India. Several workers (Nayar and Kaur 1974; Dixit 1984; Chandra and Kaur 1987, 1994; Manickam et al. 1992; Khullar 1994, 2000; Chandra 2000; Singh 2003; Singh and Panigrahi 2005a, 2005b) have significantly contributed towards the taxonomy of Indian pteridophytes.