eChapters

Materials Required

Equipments and machinery used in Postharvest Technology laboratory for processing, packaging and quality analysis.

Procedure

    1.    Identify the equipments and machinery, note down the typical features about its shape, size, colour etc.

The Tris citric acid egg yolk glycerol extender is the most frequently used extender in the cryopreservation of cattle and buffalo semen. Preparation of the extender plays a very important role in determining the quality of the processed semen. Therefore, care must be taken to ensure that the extender is prepared aseptically and it contains all the ingredients in appropriate concentration. Extender should always be prepared under a laminar air flow. It is also important to check that the pH and osmolarity of the semen extender for a particular species corresponds to the prescribed limits for that particular species. The Tris citric acid egg yolk glycerol contains the following ingredients:

8.1 INTRODUCTION

To implement a good GIS project, a well structured project design and management are essential. Well planned project will give fruitful result within the stipulated time. Project not completed in time will not incur more cost and also the time delay will add negative value to the project. Hence all the elements in project planning and implementation should be considered to have a desired result. Some of the issues are also present in GIS and they will be rectified in the next decade.

8.2 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

Any project is coming into reality due to necessity. If water scarcity is more in a hard rock region with sufficient rainfall, it is important to augment groundwater resource using rain water harvesting structures. It is important to build water harvesting structures like check dam, percolation pond in suitable locations so that groundwater recharge will be more. Hence a problem is identified and the project work may be carried out by a government or private organisation and the result is given to the government to implement the project. Likewise many area may require a project in GIS environment for planning. Once a project is created any development taking place can be added and GIS database is updated.

Abstract

The agricultural scientists particularly those who are in advisory service, irrespective of specialization, are often approached by the farmers with diseased samples of their crops and sought advice on plant protection strategy. The strategy includes components of control measures, doses, mode and time of application. In the present article different steps of formulation of plant disease control strategy are discussed. To further elaborate the contents, examples from integrated management strategy of mango malformation disease is cited.

Keyword: Mango Malformation

Introduction

Mango malformation, disease was first time reported from Darbhanga District of Bihar State in 1891 by G. Watt. The disease is currently prevalent in almost all the mango growing country and is thus designated as the plant disease of International importance and previously considered to be a serious problem in the northern parts of the country, has now started to appear in central India too in severe form. It is well known, the mango malformation is the most serious disease, rendering mango cultivation non-lucrative in subcontinent and other regions of the world (Ahmad et al., 2002; Ploetz, 2001). Mango malformation caused by fungus Fusarium moniliforme var. Subglutinans, are proved (Freeman 1999; Zheng and Ploetz, 2002). Recently, these isolates were described as members of a new species, F. mangiferae Britz, Wingfield and Marasas sp nov. (Britz et al., 2002). The casual organism of mango malformation grows well at lower temperature and higher relative humidity. The disease is quite common in both grafted and the seedling plants (Kumar and Chakrabarti, 1997). The symptoms manifest as bunchy top (BT) in 4-5 month old seedlings in the nursery, vegetative malformation (VM) of twigs arising from axillary buds and malformation of inflorescence (MF). Normally floral malformation is more prevalent in bearing trees than vegetative malformation. Flowers in the malformed panicle are much enlarged and crowded with hypertrophied axes of the panicle. Malformed inflorescences/ panicle of different varieties were variable in respect of their shapes, sizes, growth and compactness, depending upon the cellular structure and physiology under environmental factors (Chakrabarti et al., 1990). Generally malformed inflorescences produce no fruit, or abort already stages (Schloser, 1971) and is directly responsible for reduction in yield (Kumar et al., 1993 and Singh et al., 1998). In the present study the incidence of Floral malformation on a large number of mango cultivars was recorded over a period of 5 years with a view to identify the entries of future resistant breeding programme.

2.1. Seed

Defined as a mature ovule or a reproductive unit formed from fertilized ovule, consisting of an embryo, reserve food and a protective cover.

Mentzer et al. (2001) defined SCM as ‘the systematic, strategic coordination of the traditional business functions within a particular organization and across businesses within the supply chain, for the purposes of improving the long-term performance of the individual companies and the supply chain as a whole’. According to Walters and Lancaster (2000), supply chain management is the management of the interface relationships among key stakeholders and business functions that occur in the maximization of value creation which is driven by customer needs satisfaction and facilitated by efficient logistics management.

25.1 Introduction

There has been a recent increase in the consumption of organic food, particularly in developed countries. Consumer awareness is growing in terms of organic food products in recent years as almost all the food ingredients are grown under intense production systems which utilize lot of chemicals and pesticides to control the pests and diseases. Organic farming can be defined as an approach to agriculture where the aim is to create integrated, humane, environmentally and economically sustainable agricultural production systems producing acceptable levels of crop, livestock and human nutrition, protection from pests and diseases, and an appropriate return to the human and other resources employed.

On the face of an outbreak of a disease, collection of right clinical specimens in proper preservative, their transportation to the laboratory under ideal conditions and quick processing of specimens in the laboratory to identify the causative agent are crucial to successful control of the disease. This attains more importance when a highly contagious disease appears.

Collection of specimens from a virus-infected host is the first step for demonstration or isolation of a virus. Specimens for virus isolation should be collected at the time when the maximum amount of virus can be expected to be present. i.e. collect the specimens as early as possible after the onset of clinical symptoms. In many viral diseases maximum viral production occurs before the patient becomes ill so that it is ideal to collect the specimen at an even early time.
The nature of the specimen taken in any particular instance is determined by the patient’s clinical syndrome and previous history. They are best considered under three main headings.

1. Specimen for virus isolation/antigen detection/ nucleic acid detection
2. Specimen for serological investigation
3. Specimen for direct examination

Guava planting has historically followed a 5 m × 5 m or 6 m x 6 m spacing, providing 278 to 400 plants per hectare in a square planting pattern. Growth, productivity, fruit quality, and leaf nutritional content are just a few of the management characteristics of guava orchards that are greatly impacted by this traditional spacing method. CISH, Lucknow, has recently launched a novel meadow orchard system that comprises growing guava at a greater density of 5000 plants per hectare with a spacing of 2.0 x 1.0 metres. Regular topping and hedging techniques are used in this innovative approach, especially in the early phases of orchard development. Techniques for topping and hedging are essential for regulating tree size and increasing fruit supply. By using strategic management techniques to maximise tree size and fruit output, this meadow orchard system offers a more intense approach to guava cultivation than standard planting methods. It also provides improved plant density. This method’s introduction is a reflection of continuous attempts to improve guava growing methods and adjust to changing agricultural practises.
9.1 Low Density Planting
When planting guava, low-density planting differs from traditional or higher-density planting in that the guava plants are spaced widely apart and accommodates about 100-250 plants/ha. According to several studies, this strategy has a number of benefits that are essential for the best possible orchard management and acquires commercial production potential after 7-10 years of planting. According to Singh and Yadav (2014), guava trees are typically planted with a spacing of 6 to 8 metres between rows and 3 to 5 metres between trees within a row in low-density plantings. This spacing and planting density encourages a more open and well-ventilated orchard layout. (Singh & Yadav, 2014). The advantages of low-density planting are numerous, as Paramesha and Ravishankar (2013) have shown. Better fruit quality is the outcome of increased photosynthesis fostered by improved light penetration. Furthermore, the improved air circulation lowers the risk of illness, giving guava trees a better habitat. Additionally, less rivalry among trees promotes greater water and nutrient absorption, which increases tree vigour and productivity overall

Grading and Standardization

Grading and standardization is marketing function which facilitates the movement of produce. Grading standards for commodities are laid down first & then the commodities are sorted out according to the accepted standards.
Grading means grouping the products into different classes (which posses the same characteristics) in accordance with the predetermined standards. Grading as the division of products into/commodities into classes made up of units possessing similar characteristics of size and quantity. Grading follows standardization. It is a sub function of standardization.

Genus : Castanea 
Species : avellana
Family : Fagaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 24

Before the history was started to be written chestnut nuts in Japan and China were harvested, collected and eaten and aptly has been an important food for man around the world especially in Asia, Asia Minor, Europe and North America for hundreds of years. As early as 50 B.C., chestnut was brought to southern Europe by Greeks from Asia Minor and red Indians in North America prior to its discovery. Used nuts of chestnut was a staple food especially during famine times.

Genus Castanea has 13 species and belongs to the family Fagaceae which also has important forest plants like Oak (Quercus), and beech (Fagus). Species of this genus are grown for ornamental and also for their edible nuts. Three species of chestnut are economically important as they produce edible nuts, are highly variable and selection has been practiced for hundreds of years to select high yielding, large fruited type. The species other than C. dentata (American chestnut) are called ‘Chinkapins’.

A. Answer the following questions

1.    Define silage?

Ans: Whena freshgreenfoddercontaininghighmoistureisallowed to ferment under controlled anaerobic condition, produces some volatile fatty acids which preserve the green material for a long time is known as silage.

2.    What is ensiling?

Ans: The process of conserving green fodder as silage is called ensiling.

3.    What is silo?

Ans: Silo is an airtight container in which silage is prepared.

4.    Why hollow stemmed plants are not suitable for ensiling?

Ans: Because air remains trapped in the stem but once the stems are trampled then the fodder can also produce good silage.

5.    Why legumes are difficult to ensile?

ABSTRACT

Production of cardamom in India has been greatly affected by Cardamom mosaic virus (CdMV). The conventional breeding program to develop resistance is a lengthy process. An alternative approach is to develop transgenic cardamom through introduction and expression of viral sequences in the plant. The coat protein (CP) gene of all the CdMV isolates have been cloned in pGEMT vector and sequenced. Sequence comparison studies of the eight isolates of CdMV in their CP and 3’UTR showed that, Kursupara isolate is highly variable from the rest of the isolates (Jacob et al., 2003). Hence the present study was undertaken to introduce the Kursupara CP gene of CdMV into cardamom plants in order to develop pathogen-derived resistance in cardamom. The CP gene of the Kursupara isolate of the virus was amplified with and without the 3’untranslated region (3’UTR) from the viral clone. These PCR products were cloned into the pXcmkn12 vector and sub cloned in to a plant expression vector (pAHC17) at the BamHI site, under maize ubiquitin promoter. Work is in progress towards the biolistic transformation of cardamom with these constructs.

Horse

The arteries of fore limb of horse are more or less similar in their course and distribution. However, there are some special features in respect of some of these arteries as described below.

The brachial artery descends vertically on the medial aspect of humerus to its distal extremity, crosses it obliquely and descends along the joint capsule and medial lateral ligament of elbow joint, gives off common interosseous artery at the proximal third of the forearm and then continues distally as median artery.

The median artery descends along the caudomedial aspect of the radius covered by flexor carpi radialis muscle and divides just proximal to medial condyle into radial and collateral ulnar (ulnar) arteries.

The collateral ulnar artery is smaller of the two terminal branches of median artery. It descends along the cranial surface of radius under cover of the extensor carpi radialis and terminates a little above the carpus by anastomosing with a branch of radial artery.

26.1 Introduction

The egg’s primary non-food purpose is to help the species reproduce. The quantity of eggs required for the hatching of chicks has increased significantly due to the substantial rise in meat consumption. The USDA has made a list of a few other non-food use for eggs.

Inedible eggs are often used as animal feed and plant fertilizers. Eggs are also fed to show animals, such as dogs and horses, to improve the glossy sheen of the fur coat. Industrial egg albumen is used in finishing several types of leather, notably coloured stock, and glazed. production of vaccines in chick embryos is one of the key uses of eggs, as per various researchers.

Background

Alpha Partners is a large professional services partnership firm comprising over 180,000 professionals with presence in more than 156 countries around the world. It primarily deals in three main businesses - Statutory Audit of listed companies, Taxation Services (both corporate and individuals& Advisory services to leading private companies and governments around the world.

In India, the company has a total of approximately 20000 employees and partners divided between two broad entities - Alpha Partners India (AI) and Alpha Partners Global Services (AGS). AI is the primary client service firm in India and is engaged in professional services to clients in the Indian geography. AGS, on the other hand is a joint venture between Alpha Partners firms in U.S, U.K. and India - all three holding equal shares of AGS

Brainstorming is a group creativity technique by which efforts are made to find a conclusion for a specific problem by gathering a list of ideas spontaneously contributed by its members. The term was popularized by Alex Faickney Osborn in the 1953 book Applied Imagination. Osborn claimed that brainstorming was more effective than individuals working alone in generating ideas, although more recent research has questioned this conclusion. Today, the term is used as a catch all for all group ideation sessions.

Origin

Advertising executive Alex F. Osborn began developing methods for creative problem solving in 1939. He was frustrated by employees’ inability to develop creative ideas individually for ad campaigns. In response, he began hosting group-thinking sessions and discovered a significant improvement in the quality and quantity of ideas produced by employees.

The macroscopic characteristics of wood give the clues to the conditions under which the wood is grown, provide an indication of physical properties and serve as an aid in wood identification.

Growth rings do not always appear as distinct alternating bands of earlywood and latewood. Some hardwoods, for example, form large-diameter pores early in a growing season and much smaller pores later in the year; such woods are called ring-porous. Discontinuous rings are occasionally found in trees having one-sided crowns and in heavily defoliated, suppressed, and over mature trees. Examination of a stem cross-section often reveals a dark-colored center portion surrounded by a lighter-colored outer zone. The dark center area is known as heartwood and the lighter tissue as sapwood. Trees in which fibers are spirally arranged about the stem axis are said to have spiral grain.

Wood can often be identified by macroscopic characteristics, particularly by colour, gloss, odour, weight and structure. Wood have two types of features:

A) Macroscopic or Gross feature

B) Minute structure feature

This family of sub-class polypetalae is represented by only single genera and three species. Members are cosmopolitan in distribution, except in very cold regions, and are favorite plants for garden pools. Nelumbo lotus are the ‘sacred lotus’ plants of the family. Indian lotus, found commonly in shallow lakes and pods, is Nelumbo nucifera. Nelumbo, genus of aquatic angiosperms belong to monogeneric family Nelumbonaceae is represented by two elemental species N. nucifera and N. lutea. The 1st fossil record available with Pleistocene epoch of Kashmir.The NBRI, Lucknow acts as a biodiversity conservation centre.
Among the few bulbous ornamentals which survive only in water, one of them is lotus.N.aureavallis, known from Eocene fossils from North Dakota, USA is an extinct species from USA. Nearly all parts are edible. Leaves are used for wrapping around other food before it is cooked. Stalks are sliced & added to salad. Flowers are cultivated for ornamental value, religious offerings, environment beautification, water purification, besides for food, Chinese traditional medicine & yield valuable perfume. Flowers recommended as cardiac tonic and used in curing diseases of liver, skin. Its dried and powdered rhizomes are used to cure piles. Due to its astringent qualities, rhizome is known for its hypoglycemic, anti-pyretic, anti-diarrheal, anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory activity. It possesses anti-fungal activity against Aspergillus, Trichoderma, and Penicilium. Many traditional ancient medical texts report its use for skin conditions, notably ring worms & leprosy, sexually transmitted diseases such as gonorrhea and syphilis. Milky latex found in stems, leaves and flowers is used to fight bacterial infections. Lotus has been found to have 77% anti-oxidant activity. Swollen rhizome of vegetable lotus is used in culinary preparations. The roasted seeds are used as a substitute to coffee. Seeds are ground to obtain almond-flavoured flour. Seed pods (fresh or dried) are used in dry flower arrangement. Bhasinda is an underground stem i.e. rhizomes are edible as raw or cooked in northern parts of India.

Liver is one of the largest and most sensitive organ in the body performing important role in digestion and metabolism; regulation of nutrient; and production of proteins, enzymes, hormones, clotting and immunological factors. Liver also plays significant role in detoxification. Liver is affected in both primary and secondary liver diseases. Clinical signs of the hepatic dysfunction appears only after a large portion of the liver (about 75%) is inactive because liver has a large reserve of function. Therefore, a systematic clinico-pathological examination of the liver becomes mandatory to identify liver abnormalities. Clinical Signs of The Liver and Biliary Disease Jaundice (pre hepatic, hepatic, post hepatic or extra hepatic), nervous signs (hyperexcitability, convulsions, coma, weakness, muscle tremors, dullness, compulsive walking head pressing, mania),