eChapters

Dahlia (Dahlia spp.) syn. Georgina belongs to family Compositae (Asteraceae). Dahlia was named after “Professor Andreas Dahl”, a Swedish pupil of Linnaeus and author of Observations Botanicae. In India, dahlia is grown as potted plant and landscape uses but it is a poor crop as commercial flower due to shorter commercial life and its potentialities have not been exploited so far. Therefore, there is need to originate more and more new quality cultivars. Dahlias are half-hardy perennials with tuberous roots. Stems are mostly erect, branched, glabrous or scabrous. The leaves 1-3 pinnate, with slightly serrated margin are produced opposite at each node on the stem. They bear flowers on a long, stiff stems well above the foliage. Ray florets are neutral or pinnate and disc florets perfect.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The wild species of Dahlia are natives of Mexico and Central America, where some hybridization and selection had probably already occurred prior to their introduction into Europe at the end of the 18^th century (Crane et al., 1947 and Sorensen, 1969). The dahlia has been in Europe for over 200 years. It came from Mexico to the Botanical Gardens in Madrid towards the end of the 18^th century and was named by Abbe Cavanille in honour of Andreas Dahl, Swedish scientist-cum-environmentalist. The dahlia was introduced into England in 1803, but from a few varieties it soon had more than 300 varieties within the first 15 years. The initial named species imported into Europe were D. pinnata, D. rosea and D. coccinea. The first dahlias grown outside of Madrid were single (open-centred) and multi-ray open centre flowered, but it was not long before the horticultural growers of the day discovered the dahlia was a natural hybrid and when grown from seed, it readily changed its form and colour, Thus it has a range of different types. Further introduction, accompanied by hybridization and selection, have resulted in the production of a wide range of flower, forms and colours. Most of the garden types have been developed from D. variabilis. The first double flowered varieties were called Show and Fancy types. The show were self-coloured, ball like flowers, while the Fancy ones were multi-coloured.

During the mid 1800’s, these Show and Fancy flowers attained cult status with gardeners and several thousand different varieties were recorded. Other forms followed, in 1829 the first Anemone flowered dahlia appeared and then in 1850 the first Pompon was raised in Germany and was named after the bobble on a French sailor’s hat. The origin of the cactus and Decorative type belongs to the arrival of ‘Juarrezii’. According to the written records it was important as a piece of tuber from Mexico in 1872 to Holland. M. Van de Berg of Uttrecht received this so called species from Mexico and released stock of the variety in 1874. Subsequently, ‘Juarrezii’, named after a President of Mexico, was introduced into the UK by W. Cullingford a Vice President of the NDS and distributed by H. Cannell after 1880. Collerettes are the last form of dahlia to have been raised, that has their origin in France and is due to sporting of dahlias at Jardin Botanique de Lyon at the end of the 19^th century.

Geranium (Pelargonium spp.) belongs to the family Geraniaceae. The name Pelargonium was introduced by Johannes Burman a Dutch Botanist in 1738, from the Greek word “Pelargos” means stork because the seed head looks like a stork’s beak. Due to their long and beak-shaped fruits, they are also known by the name of cranesbills. Geraniums are popular flowering plants and grown as decorative pot plants for indoor and outdoor. There is a world demand for the rose geranium essential oil of Pelargonium species which contains geraniol, linalool and citronellol, substitutes for the expensive attar of roses in the perfume trade. Pelargonium species was known for their medicinal value by the earliest indigenous people (Swanepoel, 2009).

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The plants originated from South Africa (Swanepoel, 2009), as well as Reunion, Madagascar, Egypt and Morocco and were introduced to European countries such as Italy, Spain and France in the 17^th century. Geranium includes around 422 species of flowering annual, biennial and perennial plants. Both Geranium and Pelargonium are genera in the Family Geraniaceae. Linnaeus originally included all the species in one genus. Geranium, but they were later separated into two genera by Charles L’ Heritier in 1789. Although members of the Pelargonium genus are often referred to as ‘Pelargoniums’ to try to avoid confusion, many people still use the older common name of ‘Geranium’.

Most of the Pelargonium plants cultivated in Europe and North America have their origins in South Africa. Geranium robertianum is found throughout Europe, Asia and North Africa where it grows on a variety of soils, rocks, tree trunks and decaying organic matter such as logs. It is a component of virtually all forest types there. In the Pacific Northwest it is primarily found west of the Cascade crest although it extends along the Columbia River in Klickitat County. Ecological structure of Geranium robertianum L. populations under natural conditions and in the garden in Poland. Geranium farreri found in China, in south Gansu and north-west Sichuan.

Orchids belong to family Orchidaceae, the largest family of the flowering plants. The term ‘orchid’ has its origin from the Greek word, “orchid” meaning “testicle”, referring to the paired underground tubers of terrestrial orchids. There are several generas in orchids, which are popular for their separate importance as cut flower, pot plant, medicinal properties, flavour extraction, etc. The fascinating flowers exhibit an incredible range of shape, size and colour, long life of flowers on plant and an amazingly long keeping quality, which no other plant can claim.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Majority of the cultivated orchids are native of tropical countries and occur widely in humid tropical forests of South and Central America, Mexico, India, Ceylon, Burma, South China, Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, New Guinea and Australia. Brazilean cattleyas, Mexican laelias and Indian dendrobiums, cymbidiums and vandas have been extensively utilized for the development of modern orchid industry in the world.

Poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima) is one of the most popular ornamental pot plants belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae. The botanical name Euphorbia pulcherrima means very beautiful. Euphorbia pulcherrima the name originally given by German botanist Karl Ludwig Wilenow was changed to “Poinsettia” in honour of “Mr. Poinsett” in 1836 by William Prescott. Poinsettia is a short-day, non-food and non-feed vegetatively propagated ornamental plant. Poinsettias are fascinating winter blooming small shrubs or trees which can grow anywhere from about 0.6 to 5 m tall. The coloured bracts of poinsettia plants are actually leaves. Colours of the bracts can be red, pink, orange, white or marbled. These coloured bracts are caused by photo-periodism. Poinsettias have also been called the lobster flower and the flame-leaf flower due to the red colour. California is the top U.S. Poinsettia-producing state.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima) is the world’s most economically important potted plant but despite its preeminence it is not clear which wild populations are ancestral to the varieties cultivated around the world. Tradition holds that the U.S. envoy to Mexico, J. R. Poinsett collected the progenitors of the over 300 varieties in global cultivation on an 1828 excursion to northern Guerrero State, Mexico. It is unknown whether the contemporary cultivars are descended from plants from Guerrero or whether germplasm from other parts of poinsettia’s 2000 km long distribution entered into cultivation during the nearly 200 years of subsequent poinsettia horticulture.

The combination of nuclear and plastid haplotypes characterizing cultivars was found only in northern Guerrero. Whereas, distribution modeling indicated that suitable habitat conditions for wild poinsettias are present in this area consistent with their likely wild status. Finding shows that the area of northern Guerrero as the cultivated poinsettia’s probable ancestral region congruent with the traditional account attributing the original collections to Poinsett (Trejo et al., 2012). Poinsettias are originally native to the central and southern parts of Mexico where they grow as a shrub up to 5 m. The poinsettia was introduced to the United States by Mr. Poinsett in 1828. It was introduced into North America in1838 from Mexico and since that time it has achieved considerable economic importance as a pot plant in the florist trade.

Lotus belongs to the Nelumbonaceae family and the genus Nelumbo. There are two species in this genus; Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. distributed in Asia and Oceania, and Nelumbo lutea distributed in North and South America (Qichao and Xingyan, 2005). Although, the species nucifera is the most important (commercially and culturally), it is critical to describe the American species, evaluate its horticultural value and its potential as a source of genetic diversity. The American species, represented by Nelumbo lutea (Syn. N. pentapetala or Nelumbium luteum) is known as American Lotus, Water-chinquapin and Yellow Lotus (Sayre, 2004) and is native to the eastern and central portions of the US ranging from Maine to Wisconsin and in the south from Florida to Texas. It is one of the most spectacular and graceful aquatics among all the native plants of India. N. indica are found all over India and extend as far as Kashmir to Kanyakumari exhibiting enormous thermoplasticity and phenotypic diversity with a large number of racial variants with different shapes, sizes and colours. First Indian fossilised record of N. nucifera has been reported from the Pleistocene epoch of Kashmir. The presence of Nelumbo in the Tertiary period of Assam is reported on the basis of impressions of leaves and rhizomes found in the collection from Eocene bed near Damalgiri. These records confirm the evidence in support of the view that N. nucifera is indigenous to India.

Lotus has good fragrance. About seventy compounds were identified with hydrocarbons representing > 75% of the extract. 1, 4 – Dimethoxy benzene, 10, 8 – Cineole, ferpinen – 4al and linalool were important constituents characterization of the scent of lotus flower (Omata et al., 1991).

Clematis is member of the Ranunculaceae family which also known as buttercup family. This cosmopolitan genus comprises climbing lianas, small shrubs and erect sub-shrubs distributed predominantly in the temperate zone of both hemispheres but with some species distributed in tropical areas (Tamura, 1995, Johnson, 1997, Grey-Wilson, 2000 and Wang and Li, 2005). The word clematis is taken from Greek as in “klema” meaning “a vine branch”. Most species are known as Clematis in English while some are also known as Traveller’s joy, Leather flower, Vase vine and Virgin’s bower the last three being names used for North American species (Chawla et al., 2012). Most Clematis is climbers (Roh and Song, 1997), however; two notable exceptions are the species C. heracleifolia and C. integrifolia which are herbaceous and fit well in a perennial garden border. The vast majority of these are very hardy. Some species however, particularly the evergreens can only take a few degrees of frost. Most Clematis varieties produce single flowers. Some varieties produce double flowers; others produce both single and double flowers. Clematis blossoms often change colour, some very marked through the life of each flower particularly when grown in full sun. Pastel colours will hold their colour best if grown in some shade. Many Clematis species are scented, although none are strongly perfumed. The most-highly scented is the tender species C. armandii. Montana types can also be relatively aromatic often with a scent reminiscent of vanilla. Of the large flowering hybrids, Fair Rosamund is the only one with any noticeable scent.

Sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus) is the only species in the genus Lathyrus and family Fabaceae which is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant. Lathyrus comes from the Greek word “Lathyros” in which the prefix “la” means “very” and suffix “thyros” means “passionate”. The “Odoratus” is derived from Latin word which means “fragrant” (Fernald, 1950). It is mainly grown for its beautiful flower colour forms. It is an annual climbing plant growing to a height of 1-2 m with the support of a terminal tendril which twines around the plants and helps to climb. The illness caused by the ingestion of sweet pea is known as odoratism or sweet pea lathyrism. Sweet pea was used to verify Mendel’s work with the garden pea (Pisum sativum L.) in the early 1900s (Bateson, 1902). The genetical phenomenon of linkage was first demonstrated in the sweet pea. It is used prominently as a model organism to study flower development due to its large, colourful and fragrant flowers. The essential oils extracted from the sweet pea can be used in perfume blends.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus L.) was discovered in Sicily in 1695 (Rice, 2002). Its species are found both in the Old World and the New World. The main centres of diversity are the Mediterranean region, Asia Minor and North America as well as temperate South America and East Africa (Kupicha, 1977, Jackson and Yunus, 1984, Yamamoto et al., 1984 and Simola, 1986). It generally grows in temperate regions and has been found on all continents except Antarctica (Kenicer et al., 2009 and Kenicer et al., 2005). Its cultivation is popular not only in the United Kingdom and the United States but also in Europe, Russia, Egypt, New Zealand, Australia and Japan (Hambidge,

1996, Inoue, 1981, 2007 and Rice, 2002). There are some reports of commercial sweet pea cut flower production (Hammett, 2006, Inoue, 1981 and Parsons, 2004). A seed bank at the Chichester Collection was started in 1998 and stores around 900 cultivars and around 100 accessions of other species.

The students in batches will visit the laboratory of Plant Pathology for their acquaintance with different appliances, tools, glassware‘s and other miscellaneous items, which they will use for various exercises and experiments to be conducted. A list of some of them is given below:

Procedure

1.Peeled Potato slices are cooked in 500 ml of water by the time till they are easily penetrated by a glass rod.

2.Filtered with the help of muslin cloth.

3.Agar-agar is melted in another 500 ml of water.

4.Potato extract is added to the melted agar.

5.Dextrose is added in this mixture and stir well with the help of glass rod.

6.Make the volume to 1000 ml, by adding required water.

7.Medium is sterilized in an autoclave at 15 lbs pressure for 20 minutes at temperature of 121.6^oC.

Isolation of fungal pathogens

a. From leaves

•Choose leaves with young lesions.

•The lesions along with some healthy portion are cut in small pieces.

•The leaf portion is surface sterilized with 0.1% HgCl₂ for 10-15 seconds and washed with sterilized water 4-6 times.

•After washing, infected leaf pieces are placed on PDA plates with a sterilized forcep.

•After two days of incubation at optimum temperature, bits of mycelium from the margins of leaf pieces are transferred to fresh PDA slants.

•In certain cases the leaves are incubated in moist chamber and growth

•from infected portion is transferred directly to culture media.

Collection and dry preservation of disease samples

Materials : Iron knife, hand lens, vasculum, pruning scissors, paper envelops and plant press with blotters and news papers.

Method

•Collect infected plant parts and place them in paper envelops (use separate envelops for different kinds of diseased specimensxsxs).

•Place envelops in vasculum and bring to the lab.

•Arrange leaves and herbaceous stems inside the folder newspaper sheet.

•Place the newspaper between the blotters in plant press and tighten the bolts.

•After proper drying remove dried specimen from the press and keep them in separate folders.

•Label each folder giving the following informations.

a.Name of the organism

b.Habitat

c.Locality

d.Date of collection

e.Name of collector

f.Collection number

g.Other notes

Koch‘s Postulates (Pathogenicity test)

Robert Koch developed the following postulates in 1883 on the basis of which an organism could be attributed to be the cause of a specific disease.

i)Recognition: The suspected organism must be found in every case of disease (Presence of organism in the diseased tissues).

ii)Isolation: The organism must be isolated in pure culture from every case of disease (Isolation in pure form).

iii)Inoculation: The isolated pure culture when introduced into the same species or variety of susceptible host must be capable of reproducing the original disease with its typical symptoms (Pathogenicity).

iv)Re-isolation: The organism must be re-isolated from the artificially infected host and its characteristics must be exactly like those observed in step 2 (This step was added by E.F. Smith).

If all the postulates are proved true, then the isolated pathogen is identified as the actual causal organism responsible for the disease.

Introduction

Chemicals that kill or retard fungi are fungicides. Most chemicals used to control plant diseases are ”protectants“ and must be applied before infection to protect the plant from invasion by a pathogen. Protectant fungicides are usually effective against a broad range of fungi and protect the plant against infection on the surfaces of the plant to which they are applied. Often, they require multiple applications during the growing season to maintain coverage as new growth emerges and weathering removes past coverage. A few chemicals are termed ”eradicants“ since they can eliminate an established infection. Some newer fungicides are systemic, meaning that they are absorbed by the foliage or roots and move within the plant to the site of infection. Systemic chemicals may be protectants, eradicants, or both systemic fungicides can be absorbed by the plant without harming it, and transported to other tissues where they are toxic to fungi. These compounds can control and eradicate established infections, but they are also vulnerable to fungi developing resistance, as they generally only target one step in a biosynthetic pathway to kill the fungus. To minimize the development of resistance by chemical overuse, fungicides are classified into groups based on their chemical activity.

Preparation of Bordeaux mixture

Materials: Iron, beaker, copper sulphate, lime, weighing balance, plastic container, wooden stick and muslin cloth.

Bordeaux mixture derives its name from the place of its discovery, Bordeaux, France.

Ingredients required for the preparation of 100 litre of 1 percent elicoid mixture are:

1.Copper sulphate (blue vitriol or bluestone) : 1 kg

2.Quick lime (unslaked) : 1 kg

3.Water 100 litres

Method

•Dissolve 1kg powdered copper sulphate crystals in 50 litres of water in a mudpot or plastic bucket.

•In another 50 litres of water dissolve 1kg of quicklime.

•Stir thoroughly with the help of wooden stick.

•Put a filter cloth on the mouth of 3^rd container.

•Pour the contents of both the containers in a 3^rd container simultaneously and stir it thoroughly.

•Make up the desire volume (ie. 100 litres).

•Test the mixture before use for the presence of free copper, which is harmful to the plant.

Introduction

Diseases are a common occurrence on plants, often having a significant economic impact on yield and quality, thus managing diseases is an essential component of production for most crops. These fungicides are used because of three main reasons:

a.To control a disease during the establishment and development of a crop.

b.To increase productivity of a crop and to reduce blemishes.

c.To improve the storage life and quality of harvested plants and produce.

Application Methods

To protect the crop from fungal pathogens, fungicides are applied in various formulations (as dust, granules, gas and most commonly, liquid). They are applied to:

1.Seed treatment

2.Soil treatment

3.Protection of standing crop

Poisoned food technique

The principle involved is to poison the medium with fungi toxicants and then allow a test fungus to grow on such medium. The test may be performed both on solid and liquid medium.

Procedure

On solid medium

•Prepare potato dextrose agar medium.

•Add required amount of fungicide and thoroughly mixed.

•The medium is poured into sterilized Petri-plates.

•A culture of test fungus is grown on PDA for a certain period (generally seven days) at the optimum temperature for growth.

•Small disc (7 mm) of fungus culture is cut with sterile cork borer and each Petri plates are centrally inoculated aseptically containing the medium with desired fungicidal concentration.

•Suitable checks are kept where the culture discs are grown under the same conditions on PDA without fungicide.

•The fungal colony diameter is measured at every 24 hr.

Biological control of disease employs natural enemies of pests or pathogens to eradicate or control their population. Interactions that lead to biocontrol can include antibiosis, competition, induction of host resistance, and predation. Some of the microbial taxa that have been successfully commercialized and are currently marketed include bacteria belonging to the genera Agrobacterium, Bacillus, Pseudomonas and Streptomyces and fungi belonging to the genera Ampelomyces, Candida, Coniothyrium and Trichoderma.

•Dual Culture Technique: For in vitro screening, performance of antagonist isolates in dual culture (Morton and Stroube, 1955) with test pathogen can be tested.

•Pour 15-20 ml of sterilized melted PDA in 9 cm Petriplates and allowed to solidify.

•Place the bits (5 mm) of the test pathogen and antagonist on the PDA plates opposite to each other from 1.0 cm from the periphery of plates (if both are fast growing) or place it 2-3 cm apart (if both are slow growing).

•The Petriplates are incubated (at 28 ± 2^oC) for desired duration.

•Periodical observation on the growth of the antagonists and the ability of the antagonist to colonise the pathogen are recorded.

Some basic informations about genera of Family Pythiaceae, Peronosporaceae and Albuginaceae;

Pythiaceae

Indeterminate (grows continuously) sporangiophores, have sporangia that are borne variously, but not in chains, on somatic hyphae or on sporangiophores. This family includes the genera Pythium and Phytophthora.

Peronosporaceae

Determinate sporangiophores, form sporangia on well-defined, branched sporangiophores of determinate growth. There are seven genera in the family including Basidiophora, Bremia, Bremiella, Peronospora, Plasmopara, Pseudoperonospora and Sclerospora.

Albuginaceae

Club shaped sporangiophores, catenate sporangia, produces chains of sporangia on club-shaped sporangiophores of indeterminate growth. The Albuginaceae contains a single genus Albugo.

1. Introduction

The development of food products using composite flour has increased and is attracting much attention from researchers, especially in the production of bakery products and pastries. This article focuses on the use of composite flour to produce food products, namely bread, biscuits, and pasta, with looks at on its impact, following some improvements made, on the sensory quality, rheology characteristics, and nutritional values as well as its overall acceptance. The blending of wheat flour with various sources of tubers, legumes, cereals and fruit flour in different percentages to produce variety of food products are also reported. The positive effects of the use of composite flour can be seen in the final product related to the functional and physicochemical properties and health benefits of raw blended flour along with percentage blending. Overall, composite flour is a good new approach to utilizing uncommon food products as the application of composite flour produced products with different characteristics and quality, depending on the types and percentage of wheat flour used in the formulation.

Bread has been the staple food worldwide and habit of bread is derived in part due to the convenience and wholesomeness. Wheat is a commonly used cereal for making bread as it gives the desired texture due to the presence of gluten forming proteins like gliadins and glutenins (Decock & Cappelle, 2005). In earlier times idea of composite flour in developing countries originated in order to cut down on import of wheat (as it was not grown in many countries) but in recent past refined wheat flour consumption has lead to health issues and thus in order to improve nutritional and functional properties composite flour has been the norm. Composite flour is the one obtained by mixing wheat flour with cereal and legume flours for making bread and biscuits (Dendy, 1992). However, mixing of non-wheat flours, roots and tubers, legumes or other raw materials can also be regarded as composite flour.

1. Introduction

Celiac disease (CD) is an immune-mediated enteropathy triggered by the ingestion of gluten in genetically susceptible individuals. Gluten is the protein component in wheat, rye and barley. In the last 10 years, cutting edge scientific developments in this disease have led to the formulation of new concepts of epidemiology, pathophysiology and clinical manifestations. At present, the only available treatment for CD is a strict gluten-free diet (GFD) (Mulder et al., 2013; Theethira and Kelly, 2014). Until recently, the geographical distribution of CD was mostly restricted to Europe and other developed countries, such as the United States, Canada and Australia. Celiac disease is not only frequent in developed countries, but it is increasingly found in areas of the developing world, such as North Africa (Malekzadeh et al., 2005), Middle East (Rostami et al., 2004) and India (Basu et al., 2014, Deora et al., 2014; Yachha and Poddar, 2007). New epidemiological studies have brought evidence that this disorder is common in many developing countries as well, showing that the ‘global village of celiac disease’ has indeed a worldwide distribution (Fasano and Catassi, 2001).

The only available treatment for celiac disease is the strict, lifelong avoidance of gluten. When gluten is removed from the diet, the small intestine will start to heal and overall health should improve (Fasano and Catassi, 2001). Traditional substitutes for gluten-containing grains have been rice, tapioca, corn, and potato. However, more nutrient-dense grains, seeds, nut flours, and legumes are being incorporated into the diet to provide an enhanced palatability, variety, and nutritional quality. These include sorghum, millet, teff, quinoa, amaranth, flax seed, and buckwheat.

1. Introduction

1.1 Engineered health rice

Rice is one of the leading food crops in the world and sustains two-third of the world’s population providing 20% of the world’s dietary energy supply. It can be polished and marketed as white rice or can be marketed with the bran layer left intact as brown rice. The dry grain can then be steamed or boiled by the consumer to rehydrate and cook it (Kato, 2006). Despite its primary importance as a staple food, rice has several disadvantages. Primarily, rice is low in protein and high in starch. The low protein levels in rice can lead to protein malnutrition in societies where rice is the primary constituent of the diet. Deficiencies in essential amino acids may also result from a diet primarily comprised of rice. For example, lysine is the essential amino acid found in the lowest quantity in rice. The human body needs lysine for proper growth and repair of tissues. It is also important in the production of various enzymes, hormones and disease-fighting antibodies (Kato, 2006). The production of broken rice is nearly 15-20% of total production of rice (Bhullar and Bhullar, 2013). The broken rice is generally used for rice flour production and Indian traditional foods such as Idli, Dosa and weaning foods etc. Ugwu et al., (2012) reported that the rice broken can be utilized for the production of poly (3-hydroxybutyrate). The major value addition of broken rice is possible by reconstructing it into rice-shape and fortifying it with desired nutrients or micronutrients, which is a big challenge in terms of making the product acceptable to the consumers.

One approach to overcome the above mentioned challenges is to prepare artificial rice kernels or rice analogues by extrusion, in which the vitamins are embedded and consequently do not separate from the rice grains. This will utilize mainly the broken rice which is either discarded or sold at subsidized prices as the cattle feed. Furthermore, embedding makes extraction of the vitamin by rinsing or cooking more difficult and may provide a certain protection against oxidation, because the vitamins can be enveloped by a protective matrix (Steiger, 2010). The fortification of commercially produced staple foods allows exposed populations to benefit without making major changes to their eating habits (Kunz, 2009).The rice analogues prepared from extrusion can be used by addition of an appropriate proportion of water at a temperature ranging from 90°C-100°C, whereupon the rice product rehydrates within three minutes to obtain a product having the desired appearance and organoleptic properties to simulate natural rice grains (Harrow and Martin, 1982).

1. Introduction

1.1 Malnutrition

The term malnutrition generally refers both to under nutrition and over nutrition, but in this guide we use the term to refer solely to a deficiency of nutrition. Many factors can cause malnutrition, most of which relate to poor diet or severe and repeated infections, particularly in underprivileged populations. Inadequate diet and disease, in turn, are closely linked to the general standard of living, the environmental conditions, and whether a population is able to meet its basic needs such as food, housing and health care. Malnutrition is thus a health outcome as well as a risk factor for disease and exacerbated malnutrition, and it can increase the risk both of morbidity and mortality (Ogunrinade, 2014). A term used to refer to any condition in which the body does not receive enough nutrients for proper function. A person cannot properly digest or absorb nutrients from the food they consume, as may occur with certain medical conditions (Medicine, 2015). Malnutrition may range from mild to severe and life-threatening. It can be a result of starvation, in which a person has an inadequate intake of calories, or it may be related to a deficiency of one particular nutrient (for example, vitamin C deficiency).

Malnutrition is estimated to contribute to more than one third of all child deaths, although it is rarely listed as the direct cause. Lack of access to highly nutritious foods, especially in the present context of rising food prices, is a common cause of malnutrition. Poor feeding practices, such as inadequate breast feeding, offering the wrong foods, and not ensuring that the child gets enough nutritious food, contributes to malnutrition (WHO, 2015).

Pooled estimates report the prevalence of malnutrition among community-dwelling older adults of 6% and among hospitalized older adults of 39%. In developed countries, treatment of malnutrition is relatively inexpensive and effective: energy and protein supplementation using commercial “sip feeds” results in both weight gain and reduced mortality (Pereira et al., 2015). In 2013, one in four children under age five worldwide had stunted growth. Between 2000 and 2013, stunting prevalence globally declined from 33 to 25 %, and the number of children affected fell from 199 million to 161 million. In 2013, about half of all stunted children lived in Asia and over one third in Africa (UNICEF, 2015). Malnutrition may be several types as follows:

1. Introduction

Extrusion is one of the most preferred ways for creating the indulgence called ready-to-eat (RTE) snack foods with diverse shapes, sizes, colours and also nutritional and functional values which appeal to the diverse group of consumer with varied choices. In this chapter ready-to-eat extruded and puffed snacks are the focus covering the technology involved, criteria for ingredient selection, design of experiment, process modelling, effects of extrusion on physical, nutritional and functional quality of the snack; a few relevant case studies are also discussed.

1.1 Market for RTE snack foods

Indian cooking and lifestyle have undergone tremendous changes in the last 15 years. There are many major factors impacting this change which include, liberalization policy, dual income, separate living of couples, innovative kitchen applications, media proliferation, etc. The cooking style and eating habits in India varies drastically from southern part to northern part of the contry. Due to lifestyle pressure nowadays people prefer easy short way of cooking food rather spending too much time on cooking. Rapid urbanisation is also one of the reasons for people to buy such products. Snack foods comprise a very large variety of items including potato chips, crackers, nuts and extruded snacks, among others (Harper, 1981). Snack food extrusion includes subjecting selected raw material to a variety of complex physical processes to yield snacks with varied shapes and textures (White, 1994).

The RTE market in India was expected to expand to reach Rs. 2,900 crore by 2015, according to an analysis done by Tata Strategic Management Group (TSMG). The products may vary from noodles, pasta, masala packages, stuffed paratha, etc. and many more. There are many regional players who are making foray into ready-to-eat segment. Many national and international players like Nestle, Pepsico, ITC, Haldirams, Cavinkare, are already in Indian market with their products.

1. Introduction

Fermented milk products such as yoghurt are produced through out world (Kurmann et al., 1992). Yoghurt can be characterized as a gel like coagulated milk product, having a smooth consistency and a pleasing flavour and is now widely consumed both by infant and adult populations. It is common that yogurt preparation involves the use of equal amounts of two lactic acid bacteria (LAB): Streptococcus thermophillus (St) and Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus (Lb); samples prepared with these starter bacteria are labeled Lb-St (Ng et al., 2011). In the early stage of the incubation process, Lb stimulates the growth of St releasing amino acids from casein (where the most important is valine) and producing a moderate reduction in pH due essentially to St. Yoghurt has better digestibility than milk and this is related to its comparatively high content of free amino acids. Besides nutritional value, it possesses hypocholesterolaemic (Mann, 1977) and antitumour effects (Odd et al., 1983; Reddy et al., 1983).Yoghurt may be set or stirred and has a potential for being used as dietary supplement for infants. So they cross the line between dietary supplements, health foods and conventional foods with great facility. Now a days, emphasis is given on sweeteners and more natural sweeteners will be used (Hollingsworth, 2001). Natural sweeteners can be easily incorporated in yoghurt by blending cattle milk with fruit pulps like mango. The enhancement of other nutrients e. g. vitamins and minerals will be added advantage. Mango pulp which contains a high proportion of sugar, mostly monosaccharide, is easily adsorbed by the digestive systems (Celik and Bakirci, 2003).

Soybean is a comparatively inexpensive source of high quality protein. The protein and fat contents in soybean are above 40 % and 20 %, respectively. Nutritionally, soy protein is a more balanced plant protein for human consumption. Studies have indicated that consumption of soy protein decreases total serum cholesterol and minimizes risks for several cancers (Anderson et al., 1995; Messina, 1997; Zind, 1998). The positive health benefits associated with soybeans have greatly increased its consumer awareness which has created a large market for soy foods (Ohr, 2000; Liu, 2000). The problem of beany flavour in soy products can be overcome by lactic acid fermentation (Buono et al., 1990; Granata and Morr, 1996). Soy solids are not only abandoned source of protein but also have therapeutic properties against breast, prostate, colon and lung cancers due to its isoflavones like genistein and daidzein content. Fortification with soy made yoghurt beneficial in lowering cholesterol level and blood pressure and in relieving symptoms of menopause and osteoporosis.

1. Introduction

Milk and milk products constitute essential dietary components for a vast majority of the population. India with annual production of more than 135.6 million tonnes has emerged as leading milk producing nation. The per capita per day availability of milk in India is more than 290 g. Buffalo milk accounts for 57% of the total milk produced in India. Ethnic dairy products account for 90% of all dairy products consumed (Aneja et al., 2002). Many health benefits have been attributed to fermented dairy products and probiotic microorganisms (Salminen et al., 1998). The market for functional foods, nutraceuticals, wellness foods and beverages is fast growing. The harmful effects of synthetic drinks have propelled health conscious consumers to go for natural and traditional drinks. In search of better returns, the Indian dairy industry is widening its focus to include traditional milk products, and these are emerging as new profit centres for the organised sector.

Traditional dairy products have several advantages. They require low capital investment and give high profit margin. They are more appealing to the Indian palate. Dahi or curd is the most popular indigenous fermented dairy product. There are numerous references to dahi in vedic literature. The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (Anon, 1976) describes dahi as a product obtained from pasteurized or boiled milk by souring (natural or otherwise), using harmless lactic acid or other bacterial cultures. Indian dahi and its western counterpart yoghurt differ considerably in terms of cultures used and their bouquet and flavour profiles (Aneja et al., 2002). The major flavor compound in dahi is diacetyl. Dahi made from buffalo milk has a firm body and white glossy appearance, with a cream layer on top. Mixed mesophilic cultures of Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris, Lactococcus lactis subsp diacetylactis along with Leuconostoc species are grown together for production of dahi.

1. Introduction

Now a days, foods are not intended to only satisfy hunger and to provide necessary nutrients but also to prevent nutrition-related diseases and improve physical and mental well-being of the consumers (Menrad, 2003). In this regard, functional foods play an important role. The concept of functional foods which has evolved as the role of food in the maintenance of health and well-being and in the prevention of disease, has received increased scientific and commercial interest is recent past. Growth of functional foods markets include increased consumer health awareness, increased popularity of healthy foods, search for food-based drug substitutes, self-medication approach promoted by busy lifestyles and rapidly developing health conscious markets. Functional foods can be defined as foods “that can beneficially affect one or more target functions in the body, beyond adequate nutritional effect, in a way relevant to an improved state of health and wellbeing and/or reduction of risk of disease” (Stanton et al., 2005).

1. Introduction

There is a general consensus that fruit and vegetable consumption is a key factor for a balanced diet. Globally, majority of people consistently are consuming less than the daily recommended fruit and vegetable requirement. Even in developed nations e.g., Australia, Canada, Europe, UK and USA, researchers have concluded that there is large gap between actual and recommended consumption of both fruits and vegetables despite decades of concern and publicity while resultant outcomes were short-lived. In a study from 52 low and middle-income countries 77.6% of men and 78.4% of women consumed less than the minimum recommended servings of fruits and vegetables. Same study reported 74% low fruit and vegetable consumption among adults in India (Hall et al., 2009). In India, recent studies on the fruit and vegetable intake amongst urban residents was reported as 265 g per day as against 400 g per dayof fruits and vegetables excluding potatoes and other starchy tubers, that is recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO, 2008).

Epidemiological studies conducted in recent years have indicated a positive correlation between the consumption of fruits and vegetables and prevention of cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Health-promoting functional characteristics of vegetables are mainly attributable to their functional bioactive constituents. These effects can be listed as antioxidant activity, cholesterol-bindingcapacity, antidiabetic activity and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activity. Studies conducted in cell culture models and animal models have revealed that bioactive compounds of plant foods, including soybean, hawthorn fruit, tea, buckwheat, oats, onion, garlic, almond, and vegetable juice, composed of tomato watercress, parsley, carrots, celery, lettuce, beets and spinach, have cholesterol-lowering activity (El-Shatanovi et al., 2012; Vadivel et al., 2011).

1. Introduction

The demand for non-dairy based beverages in form of non-dairy milk is on rise due to several reasons. Firstly, the prevalence of lactose intolerance and milk allergy amongst a major percentage of population who cannot consume dairy milk and look for alternate source of proteins. The need for functional drinks is also a major factor which contributes to the increase in demand of milk-alternatives. It has also been reported that milk processors around the world face an uphill battle, including the dominance of private labels; consumer concerns over the presence of growth hormones in non-organic milk; fluctuations in commodity prices; supply shortages for organic milk; and growing consumer concern about the safety of animal products in general. With that long list of challenges, the market has had few growth opportunities even though consumers continue to prize milk for its nutritional benefits.

2. Need for Non-dairy Beverages

2.1 Prevalence of lactose intolerance

Lactose intolerance is estimated to affect 33 % of the global population, but the prevalence of the condition varies from country to country. It is also estimated that an average of 75 % of human adults have decreased intestinal lactase activity after weaning (NDDI, 2012).

1. Introduction

Fruit products have their unique identities having large content of micronutrients, polyphenols, vitamins, flavonoids and other nutritional compounds. Characteristic appearance and flavors distinguish among various fruit based products like juice, puree, jam, jelly, squash and other several varieties. Main concern of this fruit processing industry is the stability of the products throughout the post processing storage. Thermal treatment as mean of preservation of these products is the common process implemented so far. It ensures the safety of the product but lacks in retaining the nutritional intact that like of fresh fruit. Today’s consumer demand for minimally processed fruit products and “natural” fruit products tend to think of alternative thermal processing.

High pressure processing (HPP), a relatively new concept compared to conventional thermal processing, also sometimes known as high hydrostatic pressure (HHP), or ultra high pressure (UHP) processing, is a non-thermal food processing method that subjects liquid or solid foods, with or without packaging, to pressures ranging between 50 and 1000 MPa. HPP has already been established itself as an alternative to thermal processing. In food processing it is of great interest due to its ability to inactivate food borne microorganisms and enzymes, at low temperature, without the need for chemical preservatives and it is less detrimental than thermal processes to low molecular weight food compounds such as flavoring agents, pigments, vitamins, etc., as covalent bonds are not affected by pressure. Pressure-treated foods have sensory properties similar to fresh products, which is a major advantage in fruit processing as it matches consumer demand for healthy, nutritious and ‘‘natural’’ products. HPP of fruit products offers the chance of producing food of high quality, greater safety and increased shelf life (Hayashi 1989; Gould 1996; Butz and Tauscher 1998).

1. Algal Biomass

Algae is defined as heterogeneous assemblage of organisms that range in size from tiny cells to giant seaweeds, thus algae mostly are photosynthetic species which include eukaryotes and prokaryotic Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and live in aquatic habitats. They are ubiquitous in nature and are found in variety of environments ranging from soil, sand, marshes, brackish water, sea and fresh water. Most of them are capable of manufacturing their own food.

Microalgal research is offering wide potential in food biotechnology and is gaining more attention because of presence of wide range of bioactive and nutraceutical properties and added health benefits.The increasing population is one of the major growing concerns of today’s world. To meet the nutritional requirement of the rising population, researchers are looking for optional sources for food which are easy to cultivate, cost effective and produce large amount of bioactive compounds useful to prevent major diseases. Chlorella is unicellular green alga that is a potential source of nutrients like carotenoids, minerals, vitamins, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Especially, omega-3 fatty acid and carotenoids have received considerable interests due to their roles in the prevention of chronic diseases. Lutein and zeaxanthin from Chlorella have been shown to be associated with eye health and function. Beta-carotene is known to reduce the risk of CVDs and certain cancers. Animal studies also demonstrated that Chlorella supplementation reduced the serum cholesterol levels.

Similarly, the blue green microalgae Spirulina, possesses diverse biological activities and nutritional significance. Regular consumption of Spirulina fortified food improves immune system by increasing phagocytic activity of macrophages, stimulating the production of antibodies and cytokines, increase accumulation of NK cells into tissue and activation and mobilization of T and B cells. Spirulina have also shown to perform regulatory role on lipid and carbohydrate metabolism by exhibiting glucose and lipid profile correcting activity in experimental animals and in diabetic patients. They were also found to be active against several enveloped viruses including herpes virus, cytomegalovirus, influenza virus and HIV. They are capable to inhibit carcinogenesis due to antioxidant properties.

1. Introduction

Each day, millions of people take a small bag, drop it into a cup, pour in boiling water, and add a dash of milk plus a spoonful of sugar. People start the day with it, end the day with it, and also serve it socially or in times of distress (Herath and De Silva, 2011). The reason behind its popularity is based on the fact that the combination of theanine amino acid contained in tea and melatonin and B-complex vitamins contained in milk offers superior relaxing effects. Furthermore, the harmony of tea’s sweet aroma and milk’s natural sweetness will create a healthy low calorie drink.

Tea is one of the most pleasant drinks consumed by two third of the world’s population. It is not only the most popular and one of the oldest known beverages in the world but also an antioxidative agent available in everyday life which may help to prevent a wide variety of diseases such as cancers and heart diseases (Yang and Landau, 2000; Luczaj and Skrzydlewska, 2005). Tea provides a significant source of phenolic compounds in the diet. While polyphenols have long been of interest for their contribution to the astringenttaste of teas (Ding et al., 1992), research into the health benefits of tea has been actively pursued only in more recent times (Dufresne and Farnworth, 2001; Yamamoto et al., 1997). Even though the results are mixed for the relationship between tea and health in epidemiological and clinical studies, in vitro studies point to a range of mechanisms by which tea phenolics may help to offset chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases (Kris-Etherton and Keen, 2002).

1. Introduction

A confection is sweet tasting delicacies developed using sugar and other carbohydrates with optionally selected chocolate, nuts, fruits, vegetables or gums. Depending on the formulation, the confection may vary from sugar boiled hard lozenges to gum based soft gummy toffees, from chewing gums to mouth melting chocolates. The versatile and broad variation in the product created by differentiating flavours, ingredients and processing has greatly influenced the market demand of these products. Although confection is non-essential commodity but still relished by people of all economic strata and hence creating a great market space and scope of new products.

In confectionery research and development area, current popular sector is functional confections. The sector has been on the trends radar globally, accounting for 8% of the global confectionery market, and most accepted and successful in Japan.

The nutritional richness and the high biological value of dairy milk have made it an important constituent of the balanced human diet. It is associated with better growth, improved status of some micronutrients, cognitive performance, motor development and activity. It is composed of a mixture of nutritive components as well as other bioactive factors such as biogenic amines, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), with relevant physiological benefits. The consumption of dairy milk and products exert a protective action in human health and have been confirmed in preventing several chronic conditions like cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), some forms of cancer, obesity, immunomodulation and diabetes (Pereira, 2014). The chemical composition of bovine milk consists of 87% water, 4% to 5% lactose, 3% protein, 3% to 4% fat, 0.8% minerals, and 0.1% vitamins (Pereira, 2014).

1. Composition of Milk Fat

Bovine milk contains about 3.5 to 5% total lipid, existing as emulsified globules 2 to 4 μm in diameter and coated with a membrane, casein. The composition of milk fat is somewhat complex. Triglycerides constitute approximately 98% of milk fat, which is found in the milk globule, with the remainder being made up of di- and monoglycerides, phospholipids, cerebrosides, cholesterol, vitamins, tocopherols, carotene, and flavor components. Phospholipids are about 0.5 to 1% of total lipids, and sterols are 0.2 to 0.5%. These are mostly located in the milk fat globule membrane (Jensen et al., 1991). Cholesterol is the major sterol at 10 to 20 mg/dL.

1. Introduction

Dairy industry size and demand precede all other segments of food industry. Reporting milk production of 146.3 million tonnes in 2014-15, India is currently occupying first position in world scenario (NDDB, 2015). In spite of limited shelf-life, milk offers various opportunities of product diversification, processing optimisation and convenient packaging solutions. All categories of dairy products are unique and vary in market value. The operating margins in value-added dairy products are almost twice of liquid milk business due to reduced need of refrigeration and added shelf-life. The appeal and satiety it offers makes them ambrosia for consumers. Baked and fried dairy products (BFDP) are those class of dairy products in which main processing operation is either baking or frying. In addition to preservation of milk solids for longer time at room temperature, manufacture of baked and fried dairy products add value to milk and also provide considerable employment opportunity (Pal and Raju, 2007;Patil, 2011). The characteristic flavour and colour development of the product rely on this unit operation or cooking method and it cannot be replaced. The unique difference in baked and fried dairy products is that in baking dough is prepared and for frying batter is prepared which vary significantly in characteristics (Table 1). The quality of the finished product greatly depends on how the dough or batter is handled.

1. Introduction

Storage is an important part of any food grain processing chain. Storage of raw and processed food grain has been used by humans since time immemorial as a prerequisite for insuring food security due to off time availability, and for holding seed grain for long periods (Pande and Mishra, 2012). After harvesting grains may be required to be stored for long periods before these are marketed or used as food or seed. The grain storage is mainly carried out for three purposes viz (i) to retain a supply of food (ii) to service a trading system and (iii) to retain seed for planting the following season (Hall, 1980). Storage is, therefore, carried out by the producer, trader, processor, and the exporter and at all these levels the methods adopted affect the quality of food stuffs. The length of time grains can be safely stored will depend on the condition it was harvested and the type of storage facility being utilized. Grain storage and handling is a major concern for food grain growers and processers worldwide (Mohan et al., 2011; Pande and Mishra, 2012). Depending upon the condition and uses food grains may be stored in different storage structures using traditional or modern storage methods. Different storage structures are used by farmers with the traditional names like Gumma, Oliya and Jute bag. Caswell (1973) recorded 50 to 60% of insect damage on food grain after six months of traditional storage. A typical range of storage methods encountered in tropics and subtropics region is given in Table 1.

1. Introduction

Antioxidants are considered an important class of nutraceuticals which are associated with health improving properties. Antioxidants are compounds which when present in foods at concentrations lower than an oxidizable substrate, markedly delay or prevent the oxidation of substrate (Halliwell, 1999). They are increasingly applied in food systems to retard the oxidation process, particularly in lipid containing foods (Droge, 2002; Lee et al., 2004). The commercially available solutions to counter food oxidation are predominated by synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and tertiary butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ), among others, which are increasingly rejected by consumers and legitimized by regulators due to long term health implications (Park et al., 2001). As a consequence, the development and utilization of natural antioxidants as alternatives to synthetic ones have attracted global interest among researchers.

The use of spices and herbs in foods was known since ancient times to modify or to improve the flavor. However, the antioxidant properties of only some of the spices have been recognized. Different spices and their extracts such as turmeric, ginger, fennel, rosemary, and sage, among others, are reported to possess very high antioxidant properties, owing to the content of biologically active compounds, which enables their food application (Madhavi et al., 1996). Exploitation of natural antioxidants in consumer goods is increasingly accepted and will gain momentum due to the rise of green consumerism. In this chapter, an attempt has been made to provide an insight into natural antioxidants and colors. Beginning with the source distribution of natural antioxidants, followed by review of extraction methods for their isolation from plant based matrices and bio-preservative properties in vegetable oils to delay rancidity. Lastly, a thorough collection of literature pertaining natural colors has been presented to potentiate the application of clean label ingredients in food systems. The application of natural antioxidants and colors in food products can vouch the food safety with value addition in terms of their nutraceutical properties.

1. Introduction

India is a land of large varieties of fruits and vegetables due to its vast soil and climatic diversity. India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world, with an annual production of fruits 45.5 Million tonnes and vegetables 90.8 Million tonnes. It contributes 10.23% and 14.45% of the total world production of fruits and vegetables (F&V) respectively (NHB, 2010). Though fruits and vegetables are grown only on 7–8% of gross cultivated area, these contribute more than 18.8% of the gross value of agricultural output and 52% export earnings from total agricultural produce. These have a high export potential of 20-30 times more foreign exchange per unit area than cereals due to higher yields and higher price available in the international market (Sen et al., 2012). According to estimates, the per capita consumption of fruits and vegetables in India is only around 46g and 130g which are far below the stipulation of a minimum of 92g and 300g respectively as recommended by the Indian Council of Medical Research and National Institute of Nutrition. The low availability is mainly due to considerably high post-harvest losses. About 15-20% of the fruits and vegetables are wasted every year in the country, due to poor post-harvest management and lack of infrastructural facilities for processing and storage, amounting to a revenue loss of over Rs. 625 billion.

The sensorial, nutritional, and organoleptic quality of fresh produce starts deteriorating after harvest as a result of soon after harvest the altered plant metabolism and microbial growth. The quality deterioration is the result of produce respiration and transpiration, senescence, ripening-associated processes, wound-initiated reactions, development of postharvest disorders, microbial proliferation leading to postharvest quality loss. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the respiration and ripening processes and the physiological and biochemical changes during ripening. The best way to reduce respiratory metabolism is to reduce the storage temperature. All biological processes proceed more slowly at lower temperature (Yahia, 2007). In general, O₂ levels must be reduced to less than 10 % to see a reduction in the rate of respiration. Respiration rate is temperature dependent; so, as the temperature reduces the amount of oxygen required also drops. Therefore, oxygen levels must be substantially reduced at low temperature for it to affect the rate of respiration. It must however, be ensured that O₂ levels do not fall below extinction point as anaerobic respiration and decay may occur. Tolerance to low O₂ varies between species and cultivars and is also time dependent. Commodities may be able to tolerate low O₂ for short periods of time. Low O₂ can also be tolerated when CO₂ is low.

1. Introduction

Product development is a basic activity in the food industry. Each company has a product mix, often including hundreds of products, which are constantly evolving - old products dying, products reaching maturity, products contributing to rapid growth and new products being introduced.

In the food industry, just as any other industry, product and process development is considered a vital part – indeed the lifeblood – of smart business strategy. Failure to develop new and improved products relegates firms to competing solely on price which favours the players with access to the lowest cost inputs (land, labour etc). Product and process development (commonly referred to as product development) is systematic, commercially oriented research to develop products and processes satisfying a known or suspected consumer need. Product development is a method of industrial research in its own right. There are essentially four basic stages in the model product development process.

1. Introduction

Foods are complex biologically and chemically active systems that require close monitoring of their manufacturing, distribution and storage conditions in order to maintain their nutritive value, safety and sensory qualities by suitable chemical. The determination of trace impurities in food system presents considerable difficulties owing to complexity as it contains thousands of major and minor compounds (Nilufer and Boyacio, 2002). The choice of the method of analysis depends on the sample, the analyte to be assayed, accuracy, limit of detection, cost and time to complete the analysis (Aboul- Eneim et al., 2000). The chemical methods employed for food analysis and quality control are generally time consuming and require tedious or destructive sample preparation. For development of the new detection method, emphasis should be on development of simplified, cost-effective and efficient procedures that complies with the legislative requirements (Stroka and Anklem, 2002; Enker, 2003).

The molecular spectroscopy is a fast, accurate, easy and non-destructive technique that can be used as a replacement of time-consuming methods. Near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy has proved to be a powerful analytical tool used in the agricultural, nutritional, petrochemical, textile and pharmaceutical industries (McGlone and others, 2002; Esteban-Diez and others, 2004). Infra red spectroscopy is based on the absorption of infra red light by the substance to be measured. This absorption excites molecular vibrations and rotations, which have frequencies that are the same as those in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum (Pande and Mishra, 2015). This application uses a fiber optic coupled FT-NIR system operating in the 10,000 – 4,000 cm^-1 region in reflectance mode. It involves the analysis and quantification of molecular responses to introduced signals of known energy or frequency. All molecules (e.g. water, glucose, protein) have a definite amount of energy. When alternate energy (e.g. infrared radiation) is introduced, an energy exchange occurs between the introduced energy and the energy contained within the molecule. This is expressed as absorbance (energy is absorbed resulting in a loss of introduced energy), attenuated (energy is scattered resulting in a loss of introduced energy) or emitted (energy is released resulting in a gain on the introduced energy). As individual molecules and molecular groups (e.g. alcohols, nucleic acids, proteins, sugars and fats) have definite energy, by applying external energy of a known amount/type, one can structurally identify, quantify and even determine the natural state of these molecules within complex samples and mixtures.

1. The Aflatoxin Molecule

Aflatoxins are chemically difuro-coumarin derivatives. Presently, 18 different types of aflatoxins have been identified with aflatoxin B₁, B₂, G₁, G₂, M₁ and M₂ being the most common. Of these Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and G₁ occur most frequently, with AFB₁ being the most potent. Physicochemical and biochemical characteristics of the AFB₁ molecule reveal two important sites for toxicological activity (Heathcote and Hibbert, 1978). The first site is the double bond in position 8,9 of the furofuran ring (Figure 1). The interactions of aflatoxin, DNA and proteins, which occur at this site alter the normal biochemical functions of these macromolecules and leads to deleterious effects at the cellular level.Monteiro et al. (1966) studied the in vitro interaction of groundnut proteins namely arachin and conarachins with AFB₁ molecule. The second reactive group is the lactone ring in the coumarin moiety (Lee et al., 1981). The lactone ring is easily hydrolyzed and is therefore vulnerable to degradation.

Importance of Foods

The word “instant” has been used in widely different types of premixes to specify the products either as ready-to-eat food or semi processed foods. The instant premixes available in Indian market were classified as Indian products and Westernized or sophisticated products. The instant mixes included under Indian market products are spice mixes, snack mixes and desert and sweet meat mixes. The Westernized products (instant mixes) contained soup mixes, beverage mixes, desert mixes and soft drink mixes.

Convenience foods are gaining popularity in recent years as they are very easy to handle, require minimum storage space and are attractive. Convenience foods have emerged as a new set of products in the international market. Most of the traditional foods that are commercially available in our country are being prepared / processed by cottage industries and by some of the multinational companies. The various types of convenience foods/ instant mixes that are presently being processed, marketed and consumed all over the country. Supplementation with protein-rich sources and preparation of acceptable ready-to-eat snack foods would not only correct its nutritional inadequacies, but would also provide a variety.

Instant mixes were high in nutritive value especially needed for armed forces, light in weight, easy to carry and prepare. Rapid industrialization and urbanization and changes in eating habits of Indian people led to very high demand for ready-to-use snack foods. The convenience instant foods are meeting the urgent and exigency situations of offering hospitality to unexpected guests.

Changing life styles and values are at the root of considerable changes in eating habits over the last few years. Hand-in-hand with a strong demand for fast and take away foods, there has been a marked upturn in popularity for convenience foods in India. The major reasons for this trend are: the decline of the family meal time, growth in disposal incomes (only in cases of city dwellers), the desire for more leisure time and demand for “foreign” or “sophisticated” dishes inspired by the media and increased travel.

Importance of Traditional Foods

Traditional convenience food, or tertiary processed food, is commercially prepared food designed for ease of consumption. Products designated as convenience foods are often prepared food stuffs that can be sold as hot, ready-to-eat dishes; as room-temperature, shelf-stable products; or as refrigerated or frozen products that require minimal preparation (typically just heating).

These products are often sold in portion controlled, single serve packaging designed for portability for “on-the-go” eating. Convenience food can include products such as candy; beverages such as soft drinks, juices and milk; fast food; nuts, fruits and vegetables in fresh or preserved states; processed meats and cheeses; and canned products such as soups and pasta dishes.

Traditional Foods

Preparation of Vadagam and Appalam

Vadagam is a traditional product mostly prepared from rice flour and also sago. It is an deep fat fried product and consumed as a side dish in the meals. Papad also known as appalam or papadam in South India, is essentially a thin wafer like product, usually circular in shape rolled from a dough made out of pulse, cereals, edible vegetable oil, alkaline and mucilaginous additives. It is normally consumed in toasted or fried form. In India, papad has been associated and deeply entwined with social customs/ rituals and has been developed into culinary art.

Importance of Fruits and Vegetables in Human Life

Fruit is the edible, and more or less juicy, product of a tree or plant and consist of the matured ovary including its seeds and adjacent parts. Usually fruits are sweet, with a wide range of flavours, colours and textures.

Composition

Fruits are very poor source of protein and fat. Avocado is the exception containing 28% fat. Fruits contain high amount of moisture hence they are highly perishable. They are also good source of fiber. Fruits are not very good sources of calories. Fruits like bananas give fairly good amount of calories. Ripe fruit contains a higher percentage of sugar than unripe fruit does and the sugar is chief in the form of sucrose, fructose and glucose. Generally fruits are poor source of iron, Mangoes are excellent source of carotenes. Oranges are fairly good source of beta carotene. Guavas are the best source of vitamin C. Citrus fruits are good source of vitamin C. Cashew fruits are inexpensive and rich in vitamin C, although there is variation of vitamin content from fruit to fruit most fruits in the raw state contain some ascorbic acid. If fruits are bruised, peeled, cooked or exposed to air, large amounts of the vitamin may be oxidized. Apples are not only expensive; they contribute little to the nutritive value. They give fiber to the diet.

Introduction

The tropical root and tuber crops are comprised of crops covering several genera. They are staple foods in many parts of the tropics, being the source of most of the daily carbohydrate intake for large populations. These carbohydrates are mostly starches found in storage organs, which may be enlarged roots, corms, rhizomes, or tubers. Many root and tuber crops are grown as traditional foods or are adapted to unique ecosystems and are of little importance to world food production. Others such as cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) and white-fleshed sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) are known worldwide. Several of these crops have been termed under-exploited and deserving of considerably more research input

Potato and Banana chips: Potato chips are one of the popular snack foods consumed throughout the country. Chips are mostly prepared by small scale artisans / confectioners, and sold in plastic film or paper packs. Recently, however some of the companies have installed plants having relatively large capacities and have started marketing chips in attractive packs. The fat content generally ranges between 25-40% and moisture content between 2-4%. Potatoes having high total solids, low reducing sugars and low amylase activity are most suitable for chips manufacture.

Banana chips are prepared from varieties rich in starch having very low levels of soluble sugars and polyphenol - oxidase activity. These are mostly processed and marketed in Southern States especially in Kerala. Previously, the chips were fried in coconut oil, but now other vegetable oils are also used in their processing. Relatively, banana chips are harder in texture than potato chips.

Tamarind (Tamarindus Indica)

Introduction

The fruit of tamarind a pod 5 to 15 cm long, 3 to 10 seeds surrounded with edible pulp which is principal souring agent for sauces, chutney, in beverages and in general cooking. Pulp is carminative, laxative, given as infusion in biliousness and febrile conditions. It is also used in dyring and tanning and for polishing and cleaning metal ware. The tartaric acid is extracted from unripe fruits. The polysaccharide (jellose) is extracted from seeds, which is used as a sizing material in the cotton and jute industries. Besides, polyose obtained from the seed is good substitute for fruit pectin in the preparation of jam, jelly or marmalade. The bark and leaves are used for tanning. Tamarind balls are prepared after taking out seeds from the fruit. Tamarind paste and tamarind juice concentrate are the other commercial products.

The fruits, flattish, bean-like, irregulary curved and bulged pods, are born in great abundance along the new branches and usually vary from 2 to 7 in long and from 3/4 to 1 1/4 in (2-3.2 cm) in diameter. Exceptionally large tamarinds have been found on individual trees. The pods may be cinnamon-brown or grayish-brown externally and, at first, are tender-skinned with green, highly acid flesh and soft, whitish, under-developed seeds. As they mature, the pods fill out somewhat and the juicy, acidulous pulp turns brown or reddish-brown.

Importance

The dairy products, which have originated in India, are called indigenous dairy products. The products can be broadly classified in to khoa based and channa based. The importance of the dairy products were known to Indians since time immemorial or it could be roughly estimated to be around five thousand years ago and the development could be considered as an art.

Importance of Food Additives

Food additives are chemicals, biochemical ingredients etc., which are added to food products for their technological benefits. These benefits may be to preserve the quality of food, to maintain and improve its appeal, to ensure its nutritional value and to provide innovations in new products with consumer appeal and satisfaction. Additives are also added to maintain uniform quality and to enhance quality parameters such as flavour, colour, texture etc. in large-scale production. They and their by-products ultimately become part of the food that is consumed and so they must be safe.

Additives may be direct additives, which are added deliberately to improve its sensory quality, nutritive value, stability, ease in processing and retention of quality during handling and retailing. There are also indirect additives, which are not added intentionally but get included into foods incidentally during handling, processing and packaging.

There are some guiding principles for the use of food additives. They should be justified for their technological effectiveness and purpose. They should be safe for use. There should be maximum adequate levels, absolutely necessary levels of usage and ADI (Acceptable Daily Intake) properly evaluated while considering its safety and permitted usage levels in foods. They should not be added with the intention of misleading consumers about quality. They should also not significantly affect adversely the nutritional quality of food products.

Definition

Packaging is the science, art, and technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of design, evaluation, and production of packages. Food packaging is packaging for food. It requires protection, tampering resistance, and special physical, chemical, or biological needs. It also shows the product that is labeled to show any nutrition information on the food being consumed

Packaging may be defined as co-ordinated system of preparing foods for transport, distribution, storage, retailing and their use. It is also a means of ensuring safe delivery of goods to the consumer in sound condition without affecting adversely the quality of the product packed in it at a reasonable cost. Packaging thus has as “techno-economic function” aimed at maintaining the quality of food stuff packed, with a view to retain the quality for a reasonable period.

Packaging plays a vital and dominant role in marketing, in maintaining quality and in preserving the food.

Consequent to the increase in the consumer awareness of the healthy hazards, which may be posed by different types of packaging material. It becomes inevitable for the packers to use better quality, hygienic packaging material which could retain the quality of the product for a longer time without posing any health hazard. The choice of a suitable packaging becomes all the more necessary for a number of factors like physico-chemical characters and acceptability of the commodities packed in any packaging material. Apart from this the package should be of the right shape and size and must attract the consumer's eye which could offer an absolute confidence regarding the wholesomeness of the products pack in it.

Importance of Food Storage

Food storage is both a traditional domestic skill and is important industrially. Food is stored by almost every human society and by many animals. Storing of food has several main purposes:

•Storage of harvested and processed plant and animal food products for distribution to consumers

•Enabling a better balanced diet throughout the year

•Reducing kitchen waste by preserving unused or uneaten food for later use

•Preserving pantry food, such as spices or dry ingredients like rice and flour, for eventual use in cooking

•Preparedness for catastrophes, emergencies and periods of food scarcity or famine

•Religious reasons (Example: LDS Church leaders instruct church members to store food)

•Protection from animals or theft

Purpose of Law

The Food Laws or Regulations are made in order to protect people consuming these foods from undue risks, which may arise from processing, transport, retailing and consumption of food products which may undergo contamination, spoilage, inclusion of harmful chemicals/microbes or at harmful levels. Besides safety, consumers are also protected by these laws with respect to quality, quantity and substance that the food products are supposed to represent. Finally, laws also aim to protect the consumers from Nutrition and Health considerations with special consideration being given to vulnerable group such as infants, pregnant women etc.

Food additives are chemical substances added to foods to improve flavour, texture, colour, appearance and consistency or as preservatives during manufacturing or processing. Herbs, spices, hops, salt, yeast, water, air and protein hydrolysates are excluded from this definition.

In many countries, the use of food additives is regulated, and food additives must be declared on food labels by using their chemical names or numbers. the use of any new additive in a particular food, they ensure that: