eChapters

5.1 Introduction

The different qualitative chemical tests can be performed for establishing profile of given extract for its chemical composition. The following tests may be performed on extracts to detect various phytoconstituents present in them.

5.2 Detection of Alkaloids (Evans, 1997)

Solvent free extract, 50 mg is stirred with few mL of dilute hydrochloric acid and filtered. The filtrate is tested carefully with various alkaloidal reagents as follows:

1.1 Introduction

Over the centuries, farmers experimented and developed pest management practice to minimize the damage caused by pests. Paul Muller (1939) discovered insecticidal properties in DDT, which resulted in ushering the synthetic pesticide era. The period from the late 1940s through to 1960s has been called the ‘Dark Ages’ of pest control (Newsom, 1980). Calendar based pesticides schedules were developed by the scientists and disseminated to farmers by extension workers. During this period other control measures were not even considered for further research by the agriculture scientists. The intensification of agriculture with the excessive and indiscriminate use of synthetic pesticides (DDT) in the 1940s and 1950s resulted in dysfunctional consequences like the resurgence of target pests, the appearance of new pests, and the development of tolerance to individual pesticides in many species (van Emden, 2002). The period was dominated by the belief that the pesticide was the only solution to pest management. In the 1960s itself, a major change in thinking occurred following the realization that pesticides had serious limitations and in several cases produce undesirable consequences (Norris et al., 2002). A solution to the problem caused by indiscriminate use of insecticide began to be developed by the entomologists through integrated control practices (Zodoks and Schein 1979).

Soil colour is the most obvious characteristic of soil. It has no direct effect on plant growth; however, it has indirect effect through temperature, moisture. Soil colour can indicate the climatic conditions under which it has developed and can be related to its parent material. It can also reflect upon its age, and the temperature and moisture characteristics of the climate. Thus, cooler regions tend to have grayish to black topsoils, due to the accumulation of humus. In moist warm regions, soils tend to be more yellowish-brown to red. Arid soils tend to be light in color (due to low organic content) and primarily express the color of their mineral content. Practically all colours occur in soils - white, red, brown, gray, yellow, black, etc. Predominantly soil colours are not pure, but mixtures. Frequently two or three colours occur, called as “mottling”.

Plant name         Cultivars

Amaranthus        NBRI, Lucknow: Amar Kiran, Amar Mosaic, Amar Parvarti, Amar

Tricolor                Prithu, Amar Raktabhy, Amar Suikiran, Amar Summer King, Amar

                            Summer Queen, Amar Tarang

15.1 Introduction

Curry leaf is an important perennial tree vegetable cum spice crop of India mostly used in South Indian culinary preparations for flavouring food stuff. It is an under exploited crop. The leaves have slightly pungent, bitter and feebly acidic taste and they retain their flavour and other qualities even after drying. Curry leaf is used in many of the Indian Ayurvedic and Unani prescriptions. It has many industrial values and medicinal uses. Its leaves, roots and bark are credited with tonic, stomachic and carminative properties. Leaves are reported to cure piles and allay heat of body. The green leaves are said to be eaten raw for treatment of dysentery. External application of pulped bark and root is reported to relive eruptions and bites of poisonous animals. An injection of toasted leaves is used to stop vomiting. The tribal people of India use its ground bark to rub on the bitten Part As a snake bite remedy. The powdered leaves are also used to aid in healing of fresh cuts. The dried curry leaf powder is also a good spice powder for use in the food stuff preparation and is exported. Fresh leaves on a steam distillation under high pressure yield 2.6 % (curry leaf oil) volatile oil which is used as fixative for heavy type of soap and perfume. Rectified leaf oil is deep yellow in colour with a strong spicy odour and pungent clove like taste. A volatile oil, a crystalline glucoside ‘Koenigin’ from the leaves and ‘Murayam’ from the flowers are industrial products. Curry leaf is grown on large scale in West Bengal, Assam, Deccan plateau, Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. It is cultivated in Coimbatore, Salem and Tiruchirappalli districts of Tamil Nadu on a commercial scale.

1) Botrytis Gray Mould
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Appearance of a gray, fuzzy mold leaves, stems and on flowers of or plants. Also called, “gray mold”.
• Spotting or blight on leaf and flower stem lesions, and dieback.
• Flower parts become necrotic and die(Fig-1).
Etiology
Domain : Eukaryota
Kingdom : Fungi
Division : Ascomycota
Class : Leotiomycetes
Order : Helotiales
Family : Sclerotiniaceae
 

True/False

Q.1.    The accuracy of the measurement refers to how close the measured value is to the true value.
Q.2.    The precision refers to how close a set or group of measurements are together.
Q.3.    If the processes of measurement are repeated under identical condition, then precision explains that up to what extent these repeated values are reliable.

Radiation therapy is the delivery of ionizing radiation to a specific body areas with the goal of obtaining maximum lesion control with minimal complication. Radiation therapy is based on the fact that ionizing radiation is lethal to the cells, particularly rapidly dividing ones. Normal cells in the irradiated area may be as sensitive to ionizing radiation as tumor cells. Therefore, the normal tissue response limits the amount of ionizing radiation that can be tolerated by the patient. Effective use of radiation therapy requires an understanding of the physics of the radiation used and normal cellular and tumor biology as it relates to radiation therapy as well as an appreciation of the clinical application of veterinary radiation therapy.

In recent years, we have witnessed an explosion of biological information and the bioinformatics data arising from the rapid research and unprecedented progress in molecular biology. The novel genomic technologies have revolutionized the drug designing, discovery and development processes in government as well as private pharmaceutical industries through the use of these technologies. Various databases are doubling in size every year and fortunately we have the complete genome sequences of more than 100 organisms. At present, the pharmaceutical industries have clasped genomics as a source of drug targets. They also distinguish that the field of bioinformatics is crucial for validating these potential drug targets and for determining the ones that are most suitable for entering the drug development pipeline. Due to our increased understanding of molecular biology, there has been a change in the way that medicines are being developed. Once upon a time, new synthetic organic molecules were tested in animals or in whole organ preparations. Now this approach has been replaced with a molecular target in which in-vitro screening of compounds against purified, recombinant proteins or genetically modified cell lines is carried out with a high throughput as a consequence of better and ever improving knowledge of the molecular basis of disease.

2.1 Introduction

India is the second largest vegetables producing country next to China. Vegetable crops are grown on an area of 7.2 million hectares (Mha) with an annual production of 113.5 million tonnes (mt) in the year 2005-06 (Rai, 2007). The extent of crop losses in vegetable crops variety with the crop type, location, damage potential of the insect pests involved and cropping season. As vegetables are perishable items and are more prone to pest attacks, and at a conservative estimate, insect pests cause about 35-40 percent losses (Sardana et al., 2005). The major vegetables cultivated by farmers were cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis L.), cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.), and okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L. (Moench)). The chief pests of the cauliflower and cabbage crops were the tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura Fab.), diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella L.), cabbage butterfly (Pieris brassicae L.), cabbage borer (Hellula undalis Fab.) and aphids (Brevicoryne brassicae L.). In the okra crop, the shoot and fruit borer (Earias vitella Fab.), jassids/leafhoppers (Amrasca bigutulla bigutulla Ishida) whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci Gennadius) and fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera Hübner) were the main pests. Yield losses due to diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) 17-99 percent, cabbage butterfly (Pieris brassicae) 69 percent, and crucifer leaf webber (Crocidolomia binotalis) 28-51 percent, cabbage borer (Hellula undalis) 30-58 percent in cabbage/cauliflower. In Brinjal, 11-93 percent loss is caused by fruit and shoot borer (Leucinodes orbonalis). In okra, yield losses due to shoot and fruit borer (Earias vitella) is 23-54 percent, jassids/ leafhoppers (Amrasca bigutulla bigutulla) 54-66 percent, whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci) 54 percent and due to fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera) yield loss is in the tune of 22 percent (Shanker et al. 2008). The management strategy for the insect pests and diseases remain largely confined to pesticides. The overemphasis on the use of chemical pesticides by the vegetable growers leads to the multitude of problems to human health and ecology.

Potentiometry

Potentiometry is based on measurement of potential of an electrode system

Principle

When a metal electrode is immersed in a solution containing its own ions, the metal atom pass into the solution in the form of metal ions and a potential difference is established between the metal and the solution. This potential is called as electrode potential.

Potential on an electrode depends on the ions present in solution and their concentration which can be determined by using electrochemical cells and expressed by Nernst equation

Fungal and bacterial pathogens infecting either directly or causing secondary infection of inflorescence may be responsible for greater losses than the pathogens infecting stems or foliage, if they do not cause the death of plants. The extent of earhead infection by the pathogen(s) is directly correlated to the quantum of yield losses.

16.1 Introduction

Portulaca is an annual potherb, but may be perennial in the tropics. In many parts of the world, it is still regarded as a weed with nutritional potential. Its young stems and leaves are succulent and edible with a slightly acidic and salty taste. Stems are glabrous, fleshy, purplish-red to green, arising from a taproot, often prostrate, forming mats. It is described as a power food of the future because of its high nutritive and antioxidant properties. It contains more omega-3 fatty acids (300 to 400 mg/100 g of fresh leaves) than any other leafy vegetable plant. Succulent leaves and stem also contain dietary minerals, such as calcium, phosphorus, iron and potassium, as well as vitamins A, C and E and some amount of vitamin B and carotenoids. It has been recommended as a cholesterol lowering agent and as a therapy for arteriosclerosis. Generally, roots and leaves contain more iron and manganese than stems. Due to oxalic acid and nitrate content, excessive consumption of purslane is not recommended. The cultivated form of Purslane, i.e., Portulaca oleracea (garden or green purslane) and Portulaca sativa (yellow leaves, less hardy than the green purslane but possessing the same qualities), is hexaploid. Purslane is a succulent and well-branched herb, leaves are spirally arranged, flowers are yellow, stamens 7-10, style with arms, fruit ovoid, capsule, seeds numerous, tiny and black in colour.

ABSTRACT

Anursery experiment was conducted to study the effect of solarization, selected native antagonists viz., T. viride and T. longibrachiatum and the standard culture of T. harzianum for assesseing the growth enhancement and management of Phytophthora rot in black pepper nursery. The experiment was laid out at College of Horticulture with 20 different treatments and replicated thrice. The sprouting percentage of cuttings in different treatments was worked out at different intervals, which showed significant difference. In general, it was observed that the maximum sprouting percentage was noticed in treatments where solarized potting mixture and biocontrol agents were used. The population of soil microflora viz., fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes in different treatments were also estimated. The study indicated a fluctuation in the population of soil microbes in various treatments at different periods of observation. The observations on height and number of leaves of pepper cuttings in different treatments were recorded. It was noticed that cuttings raised in solarized potting mixture incorporated with native antagonists, especially T. viride, exerted a significant effect in increasing the height of cuttings. With regard to total number of leaves, it was also observed that addition of native antagonists in solarized potting mixture had a positive effect in increasing the leaf production. Thus, the effect of solarization enhanced the growth parameters in crop plants by making available the required nutrients. The increased growth response of plants by soil application of Trichoderma spp. may be due to the production of growth promoting substances by the antagonists. Thus, the nursery experiment revealed that, in general, soil solarization and incorporation of antagonists had a favourable effect in promoting the growth of pepper plants besides checking the Phytophthora rot in black pepper nursery.

Guava (Psidium guajava. L), a highly nutritious fruit very popular as poor man’s apple. Guava belongs to the family Myrtaceae. Guava is native to tropical America and is found growing wild from Mexico to Peru. Spaniards introduced guava in Phillippinnes and the Portuguese in India. Besides India, it also grown in Sri Lanka, Hawaiian Islandsm and Cuba. Guava had been introduced in India by Portuguese in 17^th century, and ever since it is an important fruit crop of India. In many countries it has been spread by birds, where it has been naturalized long back. In India it is cultivated in the plains in almost all the states but the major guava growing states are Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Punjab, Karnatak, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Chhatisgarh.

Cultivars: Allahabad Safeda, Lucknow-49, Chittidar, Nagapur Seedless, Bangalore, Dharwar, Akra Mridula, Arka Amulya, Harijha, Hafshi, Allahabad Surkha CISHG1, CISH-G2, CISH-G-3, Harija, Baruipur, etc.

Uses

Guava fruit is relished when mature or ripe and freshly plucked from the tree. Excellent salad and pudding are prepared from the shell of the ripe fruit. Ripe and unripe juicy fruits are eaten fresh. The fruits after removal of seeds, are used for preparing jam, jelly, paste, juice and nectar. It is also canned in sugars syrup and made into fruit butter. In some countries, the leaves are used for treating diarrhea and also for dyeing and tanning.

9.1. Plant quarantine

Legal restriction of movement of plant materials between countries and between states within the country to prevent or limit introduction and spread of pests and diseases in areas where they do not exist.

Plant quarantine regulatory measures are operative through the Destructive Insects & Pests Act, 1914 (Act 2 of 1914) in the country.

Nandina domestica Thunb. (Berberidaceae): Eng.- Chinese Sacred Bamboo [NI]. An evergreen or semi-evergreen ornamental shrub with upright shoots. Leaves mostly bi-to tripinnate, rich green purple on fall. Flowers star shaped, white with large yellow anthers, in erect panicles followed by long lasting, spherical bright red fruit.

In broad perspective, agriculture and allied sciences is defined as the art, science and business study of producing crops, livestock, fishery and forestry for food and economic purposes. Considering its broad base of coverage of various items like crop, livestock, fishery and forestry etc., it is generally called as Agriculture and allied sciences. The etymology of the term Agriculture has two Latin words, Agri and Cultura meaning soil and cultivation. In a holistic sense, agriculture is an applied science comprising of the study of plants and animals like crops, fruits, vegetables, livestock and poultry, fishery, forestry and home sciences etc. It is one the core and primary sector of Indian economy.

• A project is a specific plan or design presented for consideration.

• It is a location specific activity with specific objectives, time and cost limitations and of non-repetitive nature.

• In banking, projects refers to an activity in which financial resources are expended to create capital assets that produce benefits over an extended period of time and which logically lends itself to planning, financing and implementing as a unit. Whereas, UNIDO defines a project as a proposal for an investment to create and or develop certain facilities in order to increase the production of goods/services in a community over a certain period of time.

• Projects are common term used by many to denote specific action plans.

• Project can be long term or short term, limited or comprehensive, single sector concentrated or multi sector concentrated.