eChapters

R packages include functions, codes and sample data. The functions used in R are contained in packages. A package in R contains several functions which are related to some particular type of job. A package conatins at least one function and there is no maximum limit to the no. of functions in a package. The set of packages in R which are set by default in the software is called base package. It contains a lot of commonly used functions. The packages in R are stored under a directory called “library” in the R environment. The packages get installed by default while installing R in the computer. Also more packages can be added later on after installation, when required for some specific purposes. The base packages are available by default when we start using R. But the other packages which are already installed while installing R have to be loaded while using R. These packages can be viewed in the package window by clicking on package. To install the package we have to click on install menu in the package window and then write the name of the package.

The packages can also be installed by using the function install.packages(“abc”) where abc is the name of the package to be installed.

Once a package is installed, it remains in the hard disk of the PC/laptop. But the package will have to be called for use in the current R session. The package once installed can be loaded for use in the current R session by checking the box near the name of the package displayed after clicking on the install menu in the Files/ Plots/Packages/Help window. The package can also be loaded by using library() function. The command will be library(“abc”) where abc is the name of the package. The loaded package remains in the memory for the current R session. Once we quit the R session, the installed package has to loaded again if needed.

R is a software package / language / environment for statistical analysis and graphics.

It Reads Any Type of Data *.txt, .csv, .dat, etc.), You can also scrape (collect) data from websites and execute SQL queries It Supports Large Data Sets. Reproducibility.  R allows you to add comments to your scripts to make it clear to you and others on what you’re doing as data and analysis are separated in R. As R is fully free you can use the latest version on any / as many computers so you and your student can work on the same version. You can use R on Windows, Mac, Linux, and Unix. Anyone (Including You) Can Contribute Packages to the Community to Improve its Functionality.

You can download R from : http://cran.r-project.org. R has a command line interface and that is a huge hurdle for many users, but believe us you will find that using a command line is also easy. However we strongly recommend the R Studio text editor for working with R scripts (http://www.rstudio.com/ide/download).

Radiant energy (Q_e, J): The transfer of energy of radiation.

Radiation frost: Heat radiated from surface of soil, trees, and any other solid particles to reduce the temperature low enough to cause frost conditions. Solid particles lose heat more rapidly than air, reducing the surface temperature. Eventually the air at low levels becomes cool and heavy compared to air at higher elevations. Occurs more readily on cloudless nights when there is no barrier for retaining the heat (i.e., a barrier that radiates the heat back to earth).

Radiation: The emission and propagation of electromagnetic waves or particles through space or matter.

Radical (Free Radical): An atom or a group of atoms with an unpaired electron which can exist independently for short period during the course of chemical reaction.

Radicle: Embryonic root of seed plants.

R - Enamel can: The acid resistant, gold coloured enamel treated can are called R enamel cans. It is used for canning of acidic food which have soluble colouring pigments.

R value: R value is a measure of resistance to the flow of heat through a given thickness of a material (insulation) with higher numbers indicating better insulating properties. R-Value is a measure of insulation’s ability to resist heat traveling through it. The higher the R-Value the better the thermal performance of the insulation.

Rabbitto and putridity: The surface taint of the milk caused by Pseudomonas putrefaciens is called rabbitto and putridity.

Racking: An important operation for the wine production in which wine is siphoned off and is transferred to a fresh vat with the help of a false bottom. Racking is repeated decanting to remove the slowly setting cloud of the freshly fermented young wine. It is also called clarification. It is synonym to siphoning.

Random design: In a random design, the study population groups as well as the experimental treatments are not predetermined, but randomly assigned to become controlling or experimental groups. Random assignment in experiments means that any individual or unit of the study, the population has an equal and independent chance of becoming a part of the experimental or control group or, in the case of multiple treatment modalities; any treatment has an equal and independent chance of being assigned to any of the population
groups.

Rabdosia rugosa (Wallich ex Benth.) Hara (Lamiaceae): [W]. An erect branched leafy shrub or under-shrub growing as high altitude shrub above 2000 m altitudes on alpine slopes.Leaves ovate, wrinkled, hairy, coarsely toothed, conspicuously grey-woolly beneath, in contrast to green wrinkled upper surface. Flowers tiny, fragrant, white, spotted with purple. Shrub is of great significance for honey bee colonies.

Brief History

Fondness of man for rabbits is well established by its appearance in the Aesop’s fables and Vishnu Sharma’s ‘Panchtantra, both of which date back to 2nd century B.C. However, domestic rabbits are descendents of wild species of Western Europe and North Western Africa where Oryctolagus still exists. Interestingly, it was the Romans who first raised rabbits in leporaria (enclosed warrens) as a game animal. Like Spaniards, Romans also ate fetuses of newborn young ones whom they called laurices. These leporaria ultimately paved the way for development of game parks in the Middle Ages. The monks ate laurices during Lent because they were an aquatic dish.

Behaviour have an influence on rabbit housing. Since the domestication of the rabbit is recent in terms of species evolution (200 to 300 generations at most) the behaviour of the domestic rabbit is still much like that of the wild rabbit. The reactions of wild rabbits will often provide explanations for the problems of housing domestic rabbits and suggest ways of solving them. Common behaviours observed in rabbits are:
    1.    Territorial behavior.
    2.    Social behavior.
    3.    Sexual behavior.
    4.    Maternal behavior.
    5.    Feeding behavior.
    6.    Aggressive behavior.

Normal Physiology
Rectal Temperature    :    38.6 to 40.1ºC (AV: 39.5ºC)

Introduction

Rabbits are being domesticated in our country from a long time. Rabbit rearing is a profitable business. Rabbits are looking cute and small sized animal also. Some peoples can raise the rabbit as pet also. It can be reared in small land without much investment. They are a cute and soft and therefore are the good source of meat. There is very high demand of rabbit meat in the market. It is such as business where investment is low and profit is so high. There is high demand for fur obtained from Angora rabbits in India as well as from foreign. Rabbit meat is consumed by special population in India in which it further adds income from fur marketing. Good shed is necessary for keeping the rabbits to keep save from adverse weather condition, heavy rain, hot sun and various types of predators like dogs and cats etc. Rabbits adapt to a broad range of environmental conditions and are found in the wild and domestic state in all parts of the world. Rabbit has a good potential to produce meat, fur and wool. That’s why; rabbit is a good source of raising the income of farmers.

Rabies is an ancient, dreadful disease known to mankind from the vedic ages. It is a zoonotic disease caused by Rabies virus, genus Lyssavirus family Rhabdoviridae, affecting all mammals including man. The WHO categorizes rabies as a neglected zoonotic disease that causes around 59,000 human deaths globally annually after onset of symptoms. It is a vaccine preventable disease reported from over 150 countries and territories barring the island nations like Australia, Brunei, Japan, Maldives, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Singapore, Timor Leste and the Pacific Island Countries. The Indian islands of Andaman Nicobar and Lakshadweep are rabies free so far.

On the other hand, Africa and Asia has the highest burden of human rabies including South-East Asia: Bangladesh, Bhutan, DPRK, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. The Asia Pacific region having 60% of the world’s population includes the world’s most populous countries – India and China. Asia alone shares almost half of the global rabies deaths annually.

Synonyms: Hydrophobia, Lyssa, Jalatanka

This is an acute highly fatal viral disease of all warm blooded animals including man characterized by signs of abnormal behaviour, nervous symptoms (increased excitability and irritability), impairment of consciousness ascending paralysis and death. The disease was variously known as lytta or lyssa coming from the belief that the disease was caused by a worm under the tongue (lytta) or hydrophobia, which describes the thirst and fear of water associated with the disease. The English name rabies derived from Latin word ‘Rabere’ which has been derived from Sanskrit word ‘Rabhas’ meaning raging, furious, savage, madness or to do violence whereas Greek term hydrophobia is now specifically used for rabies in man. The symptom hydrophobia (fear of water) is developed due to painful spasm of muscles of deglutition.

Distribution: The disease is known since ancient time. The disease has been recorded in various parts of the world in different species of animals. Australia, Britain, Scandinavian, New Zealand, Singapore, Hong Kong, Hawaii and some other Islands are free from rabies. This was possible due to strict quarantine measures and restriction on import of animal and animal products from disease prone areas. Lot of outbreaks are reported in India throughout the year causing 30,000 death annually and number of death toll may be higher as many cases go unnoticed. India accounts for the 80% casualties from rabies worldwide.

Synonym : Hydrophobia, Lyssa, Jalatanka

This is an acute highly fatal viral disease of all warm blooded animals including man characterized by signs of abnormal behaviour, nervous symptoms (increased excitability and irritability), impairment of consciousness, ascending paralysis and death. The disease was variously known as lytta or lyssa coming from the belief that the disease was caused by a worm under the tongue (lytta) or hydrophobia, which describes the thirst and fear of water associated with the disease. The English name rabies derived from Latin word ‘Rabere’ which has been derived from Sanskrit word ‘Rabhas’  meaning raging, furious, savage, madness or   to do violence whereas Greek term hydrophobia is now specifically used  for rabies in man. The symptom hydrophobia (fear of water) is developed due to painful spasm of muscles of deglutition.

It is a constitutional disease of infancy and childhood, characterized by impairment of the general health, and arrested growth, abnormal proliferation of the developing bone.

Heredity is a frequent predisposing cause. Poor nutrition, poor housing facilities, want of cleanliness, want of sun light are both predisposing and exciting causes. Age plays a great part. Climate also has its influence, more prevalent in moist than in dry climates. Diathesis influences are second only to heredity.

Hyperemia of all the structures of the bone, periosteum, osseous tissue, cartilage and marrow, is the first step in the development of the rachitic lesion. As a result, we have proliferation of cartilage cells, retarded and irregular development of bone, softening of matrix, undue vascularity of the cancellous tissues, and weakness and deformity of the bones in various parts of the body. The weight of the bones is lessened. The vascularity of the bones is increased. In some cases the blue discoloration is due to the increased vascularity may be seen even through the thick scalp. Outside of the bones they may find blurring of striation of muscles, excessive fat in connective tissue between the muscle fibre and rare cases of fatty degeneration of the muscle fibres themselves. The liver is occasionally enlarged the spleen more rarely so.

Radiation Chemistry is a branch of nuclear chemistry that deals with the study of chemical effects of radiation on matter.

Radio activity is the process by which an atomic nucleus of an unstable atom loses energy by emitting ionizing radiations (a, b, g radiations). It may be of

energy plants need to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen. The carbohydrates produced by photosynthesis are used for vegetative and reproductive growth and to increase crop biomass. The solar energy required for photosynthesis is available during day time. In crop canopies radiation is transmitted through leaves and between leaves resulting in changes of spectral composition rapidly with depth. In the absence of vegetation, solar radiation reaches the earth surface after it gets depleted in the atmosphere due to:
• Reflection of incoming radiation by the cloud tops
• Absorption of ultraviolet radiation by the ozone present in the atmosphere and infrared radiation by the greenhouse gases and water vapour
• Scattering of radiation by the solid particles suspended in the atmosphere
The remaining parts of solar radiation called insolation i.e. incoming solar radiation reach the earth surface. After it is incident on the earth surface, a fraction of the solar radiation gets reflected back into the atmosphere. The difference between the incoming solar radiation and outgoing solar radiation is called net radiation. The net radiation can be calculated using radiation balance which takes into consideration both incoming solar radiation and outgoing solar radiation. The equation for radiation balance can be written as:

It has been well established that the risk of health problems rises as the amount of radiation exposure increases. All types of radiation produce changes in the living tissues. The resultant cellular injury causes physiological and pathological changes leading to “Radiation sickness”. The radiation effects may be somatic or genetic. Somatic effects are harmful to a person in his lifetime whereas genetic effects affect generations. Radiation may cause changes in complex molecular systems of living cells, primarily in following two ways :- 

Definition
 
Radiation poisoning, also called “radiation sickness” or a “creeping dose” is a form of damage to organ tissue due to excessive exposure to radiation. The term is generally used to refer to acute problems caused by a large dosage of radiation in a short period, though this also has occurred with long term exposure to low level radiation. Many of the symptoms of radiation poisoning occur as ionizing radiation interferes with cell division.
 
The clinical name for “radiation sickness” is acute radiation syndrome. A short exposure can result in acute radiation syndrome; chronic radiation syndrome requires a prolonged high level of exposure. A chronic radiation syndrome does exist but is very uncommon;

Definition 

Radiation poisoning, also called “radiation sickness” or a “creeping dose” is a form of damage to organ tissue due to excessive exposure to  radiation. The term is generally used to refer to acute problems caused by a large dosage of radiation in a short period, though this also has occurred with long term exposure to low level radiation. Many of the symptoms of radiation poisoning occur as ionizing radiation interferes with cell division.

The clinical name for “radiation sickness” is acute radiation syndrome . A short exposure can result in acute radiation syndrome; chronic radiation syndrome requires a prolonged high level of exposure. A chronic radiation syndrome does exist but is very uncommon;