eChapters

Abstract

The irradiation process involves exposing the food, either prepackaged or in bulk, to a predetermined level of ionization radiation. In this process, it is important to know sources of ionization radiation, how energy is quantified, and its scope with advantages and limitations.The traditional methods like preservation, such as drying, smoking and salting have been supplemented with pasteurisation (by heat), canning (commercial sterilisation by heat), refrigeration, freezing and chemical preservatives. ‘Food irradiation’ is another technology that can be added to the list. By realizing its importance present chapter highlighted with some basic aspects as well as its applications and other related aspects of food irradiation. Food irradiation involves basic principles like; Pasteurization (Pathogen Reduction) 2. Sterilization 3. Sanitation 4. Disinfestation. As concern to dosage can be applied as  low, medium and high based on type of radiation, type of food, type of packaging material and time of application. It has broader range of application in preservation with this also has few limitations which have become bottlenecks in this technology. Though technology is employing much in developed countries rather than developing once. Prospectus should be given in those countries also.

Introduction

Packaging is the science, art and technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of design, evaluation, and production of packages. Packaging may be defined as the art and science which involves preparing the articles for transport, storage display and use. India is a land of large varieties of fruits and vegetables due to its vast soil and climatic diversity. With 38 and 71 million tons of production of fruits and vegetables, India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables next to Brazil and China respectively. Apart from the huge value addition and employment involved in these activities, packaging has served the Indian economy by helping preservation of the quality and lengthening the shelf life of innumerable products-ranging from milk and biscuits, to drugs and medicines, processed and semi-processed foods, fruits and vegetables, edible oils, electronic goods etc., besides domestic appliances and industrial machinery and other hardware needing transportation (FAO, 1985).

Introduction

Fresh fruits and vegetables are known for their nutritional and relishing nature. But, their fast perishability and season wise availability make them unavailable for a longer time. To enjoy and get benefited from their unique taste and nutritional value they are further preserved or converted into some value-added products such as jam, jelly, candies, juices, minimally processed fresh-cut fruits and vegetables, pickles etc. There are techniques which are developed to preserve them while in fresh and also when they are made into value-added products. Some require only one technique and other requires more than one in combination so that the product can be preserved for a longer period and available to maximum population even after their period of production/availability is completed.

Ornamental Industry

Floriculture as a multi-billion dollar industry has been undergoing unique revolution in terms of production and marketing of high value ornamentals such as cut flowers, loose flowers, potted and foliage plants there by emerged as fully export oriented activity. Owing to the steady increase in demand of flowers, floriculture has become one of the important commercial businesses in horticulture. Presently, floriculture industry in India has been growing with compound annual growth rate of 25 percent over the past decade (Muthukumaran, 2009). It has been found that commercial floriculture has higher potential per unit area than most of the field crops and therefore, it is a lucrative business. Indian floriculture industry has been shifting from traditional flowers to cut flowers for export purposes.Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Tamilnadu, Rajasthan, West Bengal have emerged as major floriculture production areas. The export of floricultural products from India has been on an increase in the past five years due to high demand for floriculture products in importing countries. The estimated total area under floriculture in India is 2,82,000 ha. Tamil Nadu stands first followed by Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Delhi and Haryana. Approximately 16,57,000 metric tonnes of loose flowers and over 5,20,000 metric tonnes cut flowers are produced in India during 2015-16. Total export of floriculture products is 22,518 MT with value of 479 crores (APEDA, 2015). Major importers of ornamental products from India are USA, Germany, UK, Netherland, and UAE.

Introduction

Horticulture plays a significant role in Indian Agriculture. It contributes 30% GDP from 11.73 % of its arable land area. India is the second largest producer of both fruits and vegetables in the world (52.85 Mt and 108.20 Mt respectively). Being rich source of carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins and dietary fibres these constitute an important part of our daily diet. The dietary fibres have several direct and indirect advantages. Not only this, fruits and vegetables provide a variety in taste, interest and aesthetic appeal. Their significance in human life is being recognised increasingly in societies with the objective of minimizing the occurrence of the diseases related with an affluent life style.

Abstract

Vegetable cultivation has been threatened due to limited availability of arable land and frequent vagaries of environment and incidence of soil borne pests and diseases. Development of stress tolerant or climate smart cultivars through conventional breeding methods or dependence upon agrochemicals for mitigation of pest and disease problems for vegetable crops have been practised since time immemorial. Salinity in coastal belts, high or low temperature injury, bacterial wilt in solanaceous vegetables, Fusarium wilt and nematode infestation in cucurbits are common of the many maladies which have caused tremendous loss in productivity and quality of vegetable crops throughout the globe. 

Introduction

Stress is usually defined as an external factor that exerts a disadvantageous influence on the plant. In most cases, stress is measured in relation to plant survival, crop yield, biomass accumulation or the primary assimilation processes (CO₂ and mineral uptake), which are related to overall growth. Stresses can be biotic, imposed by other organisms or abiotic arising from an excess or deficit in the physical or chemical environment. Biotic stress arises by attack of bacteria, viruses, fungi, invertebrates and even other plants, whereas abiotic stress occurs due to drought, water logging, high or low temperatures, excessive soil salinity, imbalance of mineral nutrients in the soil, heavy metals and too much or too little light. Stresses trigger wide range of plant responses, from altered gene expression and cellular metabolism to changes in growth rates and crop yields.

Introduction

Stress in physics is any force applied to an object. Stress in biology is any change in environmental conditions that might reduce or adversely change a plant’s growth or development. ‘Stress’ or ‘pressure’ was introduced into the theory of elasticity as an amount of force for a given unit area. When sufficient force is applied to material, the material bends and the change in length is termed ‘strain’. With increasing stress, the initially linear relationship between stress and strain becomes nonlinear until the proportionality limit, after which the material deforms elastically (it can bend back), then plastically (it cannot bend back) until it ruptures. Since the 1930s, biologists have attempted to apply this terminology to biological systems, albeit the nature of the stresses will vary between nonliving materials and organisms.

1. Introduction

Stress-Any deviation from this optimal condition of any factor essential for its growth will lead to aberrant change in physiological processes and due to this plant body will experience tension and this state can be referred as plant under stress.

In physics, stress is defined as mechanical force per unit area applied to an object. In response to the applied stress, an object undergoes a change in the dimension, which is also as strain. However, the biological stress is defined as an advance force or a condition, which inhibits the normal functioning and well-being of a biological system such as plants. There are several abiotic and biotic factors, which under a given condition, may be perceived as stress by plants.

Introduction

India is gifted with varied agro-climatic conditions for growing an array of vegetable crops to combat the present ill-balanced diet. The brinjal belongs to the family Solanaceous and to the genus Solanum, species melongena. The egg plant, Guinea squash are some synonyms to brinjal. It is a hardy crop and does best in worm and moist climate. The crop is generally grown twice or thrice in a year. The edible part, fruit is of high nutritive value and can well be compared with tomatoes. Insect pest constitute the major limiting factors in the successful production of brinjal. Pest comples of brinjal is very high and aphid (Aphis gossypii) causes heavy damage to the crop. Aphis gossypii (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is a tiny insect or greenfly in the superfamily Aphidoidea in the order Hemiptera. It is a true bug and sucks sap from plants. It is a widely distributed pest of a variety of agricultural crops in the families Cucurbitaceae, Rutaceae and Malvaceae.

Introduction

The fruit crop acreage in Kashmir is rapidly increasing and is developing into perennial stretches of monocropping systems. The area of apple in Kashmir 143790 ha. Parallely this has led to increased pests and use of chemical pesticides. As a result, pest resurgence, pesticide residue in fruits, deleterious effect on biological agents and resistance build-up in insects have all complicated pest management (Smith, 1970).In view of the rising export potential of residue free fruits and the crisis situation created by indiscriminate use of pesticides, fruit crops need much more attention in terms of IPM input than what is getting now. It is therefore, necessary to develop and follow a rational approach with greater reliance on IPM to promote sustainability and to reduce the number of application of hazardous chemicals. Integrated pest management requires thorough preplanning even before establishing the fruit orchard which includes selection of suitable site,siol type, improved and pest free scion varieties, resistant rootstock compatible with scion, regular pest and weather monitoring in the orchard, balanced use of fertilizers, water management, proper training and pruning, improved cultural practices,augementation and conservation of parasitoids and predators and need based application of selective insecticides.The various strategies for successful management of economically important pests of temperate fruits are thoroughly discussed.

Introduction

Pests and diseases are very serious issues in vegetable crops and account for nearly 25-30% damage to the expected yields across different crops inspite of high amount of chemical use. Excessive reliance on chemicals has created problems of pest resistance to pesticides, decimated useful fauna and flora as well as imperilled the delicate ecological balance. In addition, pesticide treadmill lures the farmers for ever increasing use of pesticide dosages, thereby encouraging a vicious cycle of environmental pollution. Vegetable crops are one of the major groups of crops that contribute heavily in this regard, being the third major consumers of pesticides after cotton and rice in our country. Insect pests and diseases inflict the horticultural crops especially vegetable crops more than others because of their supple nature, intensive cultivation under high moisture and input regimes, short duration and denser canopy of the crops.

Abstract

We studied the mathematic model of “predator-prey” and„ pest-parasite”. Under the circumstances when these two specious coexist in particular conditions. In that case the components of the system continuously change. We describe the system by two differential equations which conclude into numeral equation by integrators and variables. According these equations we calculate some numeral formulations essential to these changeable populations.
  
We produce the prevalence of predator-prey systems by using analytic and quantitatic methods for massive rage of data. This process as usual is described by the differential equation consisting assembling point. The constructed phase portrait which we need to solve the problem is found by Runge-Kuta method. So the article speaks about the conformity with a law which we receive by permanent change of parameters’ menaings and temporal changes of biological systems’ conditions.

When there is no positive steady state both prey and predator can become extinct. In one particular case both species become extinct regardless on the initial data. In the second, both species will die out only if initial prey/predator ratio is too low. Otherwise, only the predator goes extinct, while prey tends to carrying capacity.

Abstract

Roselle, or Jamaica sorrel (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) is a popular vegetable in many tropical regions, cultivated for its leaves, seeds, stems and calyces of which, the dried calyces are used to prepare tea, syrup, jams, jellies and beverages. It is an annual herbaceous shrub belongs to family Malvaceae originated in old world tropics. The fresh calyces and young leaves are used as a vegetable in various cuisines and the plant also yield industrial bio fibre. It also has nutraceutical potential, high pigment content, and nutritional and medicinal properties. Roselle is a drought tolerant crop and cultivated throughout the tropics and subtropics during hot and rainy seasons. China and Thailand are the largest producers and control much of the world supply, where as the best quality roselle comes from Sudan. Many medicinal applications of this plant have been developed around the world. It is used to treat hypertension, pyrexia, dyspepsia, and leukaemia hepato protective, due to its high content of protocatechuic acid. Leaves are emollient and sedative and also show antihypersensitive, antihyperlipidimic, diuretic and anti oxidant properties. Hence, it is an ideal candidate crop for low input multi-cropping system for the food and nutritional security for developing countries.

Abstract
 

Ensure enough food and water to the growing world population and preserve the biodiversity of our planet are among the major challenges of our immediate future. These challenges are essentially addressed to the agricultural world, which is constantly evolving to satisfy the most basic needs of the humankind. The approaches and the possible answers to these big challenges are many and, even if partial, each sustainable solution or innovation can contribute to improve the quality of our life. To overcome the barriers for food and nutritional security microgreens is one of the possible innovative approach in this 21st century. A microgreen is a young vegetable green that is used both as a visual and flavor component or ingredient primarily in fine dining restaurants. Fine dining chefs use microgreens to enhance the attractiveness and taste of their dishes with their delicate textures and distinctive flavors. Smaller than “baby greens,” and harvested later than sprouts, microgreens can provide a variety of leaf flavors, such as sweet and spicy. They are also known for their various colors and textures. Among upscale markets, they are now considered a specialty genre of greens that are good for garnishing salads, soups, plates, and sandwiches.

Abstract

In the recent past we have seen a great upsurge in the production and productivity of food grains as well as horticultural produce which is sufficient to feed our burgeoning population. This way we are self-sufficient to feed our population, but now the major challenge before us is to ensure the nutritional security of each and every individual of the country. Moreover, meeting nutritional security through conventional or molecular breeding demands long time. However, this could be achieved in much shorter period of time i.e., within 2-3 weeks by growing microgreens.Microgreens can be easily characterised by having a central stem with two fully developed cotyledon leaves and mostly one pair of small true leaves.In comparison to their mature counterparts, microgreens of a variety of vegetables and herbs have been reported to be more nutritious. They are rich in ascorbic acids, carotenoids, phylloquinone and tocopherols, which is responsible for its antioxidant properties and also plays a vital role in weight gain modulation, cholesterol metabolism. It may also protects from cardiovascular diseases by preventing hypercholesterolemia. Main problem associated with microgreens are their high price and high perishability and lack of awareness among people about its cultivation practices and health benefits. It demands great attention from the scientific community, to address these problems and make it available in each and every household to ensure the nutritional security of the nation.

Introduction

The demand for agriculture commodity is growing world over and meets the ever increasing targets as per the demand, productivity needs to be raised further. This can be realized in two ways- by increasing area of cultivation and/or through increased efficiency of inputs (both natural and manmade). The scope for the farmer is very limited worldwide and for the latter, the primary input is the solar energy which is most abundant except in few cases like colder regions. In the coming future, the availability of land for cultivation will be a major impendent due to rapid urbanization, hydroelectric projects, dams and rivers, highway roads and also there is a degradation of fertile land due to soil erosion (120.72 million ha), soil salinity and water logging (8.4 million ha) Nath et al., 2007 and Hegde et al. (2015).  Under this situation, multi-storied cropping system will be a viable option to provide food, nutrition and income security to people Awasthi et al., (2008). The available arable land could be effectively utilized for production of field and horticultural crops to achieve nutritional security for the growing population and sustainable income for the farming community. Increasing food production with limited natural resource is a great challenge to the scientific community. Thus, production per unit area of land, time and inputs can be increased by improving efficiency of the rate and extent to which solar energy is harvested for conversion to economic produced.

Introduction

Crop regulation is also known as flowering/ fruiting cycle management. It can also be termed as management of vegetative-reproductive balance. Some of the fruit crops bloom throughout the year without any resting period and produces two or three crops (bahar) in a year but yield and quality is not so good in all crop harvest. It is very essential to understand the flowering and fruiting behavior of crops and which bahar will give good crop with considering all the factors associated with a particular bahar. It is important for the available time to be partitioned to give an appropriate balance between the making of sources of resources which capture and utilized resources efficiently in generating harvestable yield and the filling of sinks for resources; and sink must mature in desired time for harvest. Apart from their importance in the determination of crop yield

The first step of sexual reproduction (Flowering) is of paramount importance in agriculture, horticulture and plant breeding. The change from the vegetative state to the reproductive state is one of the most dramatic events. Flowering leads to an exciting succession of events like anthesis, fruit set, fruit development, maturation and ripening. It provides for the propagation of the species and assists in crop improvement through genetic recombination. Plant growth regulators have remained an important component in horticulture, agriculture from time immemorial, because they were effective means of quantitative as well as qualititative improvement in growth and development of crops. Plant growth and development as well as the responses to environmental factors, are highly regulated by complex and coordinated action of the endogenous hormones (Reddy and Bhagwan, 2014).

Abstract

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is the one of the most important fruit crop of tropics and subtropics. Mango belong to group of plant in which there is an antagonism between vegetative vigour and flowering intensity. Therefore, any factor that reduces vegetative vigour without altering the metabolic activity and favors flowering which can be possible by the use of growth regulator. Growth retardant that has been widely used in mango crop is paclobutrazol (PBZ) or cultar. Paclobutrazol is N-containing heterocyclic, trizole compound which stimulate flowering by inhibiting gibberellic acid pathway by inhibiting oxidation of ent-kaurene to ent-kaurenoic acid by blocking cytochrome P450 dependent monooxygenase enzyme. It is applied at the rate 2-5g/m of canopy diameter 3-4 months prior to desired date of flowering either by foliar spray, soil drench or trunk application. However, soil application is found more efficient on mango quality production than other. Paclobutrazol has pleiotropic response on mango cultivars. It has been found that application of paclobutrazol is effective in enhancing the protein mobilisation, starch, carotenoid, lycopene, phenol and cytokinin, abscisic acid and enzyme content in treated plant that induce flowering. It has been found that paclobutrazol is capable to reduce mango malformation and make plant tolerant in stress condition.