eChapters

Burn : Tissue changes due to excessive absorption of heat is known as burns.
Scald : A scald is a burn caused by moist heat and is usually partial thickness.

Etiology
       Dry heat
       Actinic rays (sunburn)
       Irradiation
       Moist heat
       Electricity
       Friction
       Dry heat causes desiccation and charring.

Key Points

• Burns are injuries caused by hot solids or flames.

• Scalds are injuries caused by liquids or steam.

Business efficiency refers to the ability of an organization to use its resources— such as time, money, labor, technology, and materials—in the most effective way to achieve maximum output with minimum waste. In simple terms, business efficiency means doing work in the best possible way with the least amount of effort, cost, and time while maintaining high quality. Efficiency is not only about working faster; it is about working smarter. A business is considered efficient when it produces more results with fewer resources. For example, if a company can produce 100 products in 5 hours instead of 8 hours by using better machines or automation, then the company has improved its efficiency.

Introduction

In simple terms, business refers to buying and selling of products. Business would define itself as an organized effort through companies aimed at supplying consumers with products and services in a return for monetary compensation. However, this simplistic definition is insufficient to assess the impact of the environment on modern international business operations. For easy understanding, modern business can be explained as a complex field of industry and commerce involving activities associated with both production and distribution. These activities cater to the wants and desires of society at one extreme and provide profit for business firms at the other.

Indian leaders, particularly the first Prime Minister Dr. Jawaharlal Nehru, who had conceived the theory of five year plans, had regarded high economic growth and higher income among poor population as the foremost objectives before the newly independent nation. To achieve these objectives, government was made to play a very important role, and since 1951, a series of five year plans have been the driving forces behind the economic prosperity of the country. Despite of experiencing growth in 1950s, it was still lower than that of many Asian countries. Between 1951-79, the Indian economy had grown at an average rate of 3.1 percent a year at constant prices. Growth in the industrial sector had been about 4.5 percent a year, while for the agriculture sector, growth was 3.0 percent over that period. Many of the political leaders associated with the movement were also in support of a socialistic development pattern. They favored state interference in the economy. They encouraged state ownership of core industries.

Introduction

The establishment and nurturing of Small and Medium Enterprises (SME’s) is a vital input in creating dynamic market economies in the economic and social development of transition countries. Globalization has created a new world order in which entrepreneurship and systematic innovation play important roles by offering competitive advantage for much needed sustainability of SME’s. To keep up the momentum, the development process of innovative ideas into products require alignment with the changing business paradigms, market dynamics and prevailing economic scenario.

The concept of business incubation dates back to 1950s and was more of providing a real estate facility to the small scale units to tide over the early years’ resource deficiencies. These are called the first generation incubators, which were first established in United States. Later on, the idea of business incubation diffused over different countries, and by the mid of 80s the incubators started providing services like business supports, accelerating the learning curve, including knowledge based services. These are termed as second generation incubators. The third generation of incubators provides the additional facility of networking also to the incubated companies. The importance of networking led to the establishment of virtual incubators or networked incubators, where physical infrastructure has less sanctity. Business accelerators appeared in the mid 2000s, and by now the concept of business incubation is spread all over the world. There exist almost 9000 business incubators in the world.

Introduction

The business models, in general are based on traditional ways of strategy formulation and implementation, leading to incremental and non- disruptive change in the nature of business and agri-industry practices. In today’s knowledge environment, we know that agri-businesses cannot survive by just running harder, but rather by running differently and “smarter” than competitors. (Seven et.al, 2005). This article suggests a sense-testing tool for the extensionists and administrators to enable disruptive innovation of extension-led business models through examples and case evidence.

Business is fundamentally concerned with creating value and capturing returns from that value. The term creating and capturing value reflects two fundamental functions that all extension organizations must perform to remain viable over an extended period of time. Successful extension organizations (SEOs) create substantial value by doing things in ways that differentiate them from the competition. The SEOs might develop core competencies, capabilities, and positional advantages that are different from those of competitors.

Introduction

Business planning is required to meet the expectations of the future of any business and to meet the expected or unexpected obstacles that the future may hold. In the absence of a proper business plan, any business tends to fail. Not many are aware of the importance of preparing a good business plan. A good plan not only helps in planning as per the expected outcomes, but it also aids in seeking the right funds and bringing favourable investment into the business. However, the question remains: how to prepare an effective business plan. To aid in business planning, many use a Business Model Canvas. A Business Model Canvas or BMC (Figure 1), is a tool that represents different organisational components briefly in a very creative way. These components create the value of any organisation. The BMC is a strategy tool that also analyses the business situation of an existing business. There are nine components of a BMC, which are also referred to as the building blocks of an organisation. These are customer segments, Proposition, Channels, Customer Relationships, Key Resources, Key Activities, Key Partners, Cost Structure, and Revenue Structure. If BMC is prepared well, there are good chances that the Business plan will be developed well, which reduces the chances of failure in business. At the same time, it helps the business sail through the competitive environment smoothly and stay sustainable in the long run (Johnson, 2020).

STARTUP India is an innovative initiative started to help people who want to start their own business. These individuals are reflective and resilient. Therefore, the government provides assistance for them to realize their concepts and expand. The Government of India introduced the ‘Startup India’ initiative on January 16, 2016, in New Delhi.

What is a Start Up?

According to the government notification, the journal number will replace the G.S.R. 364(E) dated 11 April 2018 as amended by Notification No. G.S.R. 34 (E) on 16 January 2019 by DPIIT.

Definitions

In this announcement: An entity shall be measured as a Startup

• Any entity for a period of ten years from the date of incorporation/registration, if registered as a private limited company (as defined in the Companies Act, 2013) or listed as a partnership (registered under Section 59 of the Partnership Act, 1932) or a limited liability partnership (under the Limited Liability Partnership Act, 2008) in India.

• The revenue of the entity has not exceeded one hundred crore rupees for any of the financial years since registration/registration.

• The business unit works to innovate, develop or improve products, processes or services, if there is a scalable business model with high potential for performance or value creation. But the enterprise created by revolution, by revitalization of the existing business, is not called a “start-up”.

17.1 Introduction
Butter is a fat concentrate that is produced by churning cream to create a solid bulk, which is subsequently processed. The table creamery butter is produced from the cream or coagulate of cows or buffaloes, or a combination of the two. It may contain common salt and natural colorants such as annatto or carotene, but it should be devoid of other animal lipids, wax, mineral oils, and vegetable oils and fats. The only permitted additives are common salt and natural colorants (annatto and carotene), with no preservatives permitted.. The butter must contain a minimum of 80% milk fat, no more than 1.5% curd, and no more than 3% sodium measured by weight. Diacetyl may be incorporated for flavoring purposes; however, it is prohibited from exceeding 4 ppm. Calcium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, and sodium polyphosphate are permissible additives, provided that their combined weight does not exceed 0.2% of the butter’s weight.
17.2 Classification
The market supplies a wide variety of butter varieties. This varies depending on the kind of cream used in their production as well as other factors. The varieties of butter are:
1. Pasteurized cream butter: Usually made from sweet cream that has been pasteurised. However, this kind of butter has a milder flavour than the same kind of cream that hasn’t been pasteurised.
2. Ripened cream butter: Butter is produced through adding butter culture to cream and incubating it until the desired acidity and flavour are achieved. Authentically made ripened cream butter possesses a mild
flavour commonly known as ‘real butter flavour’.
3. Unripened cream butter: Created from fresh, unripened cream.
4. Salted butter: Butter with added salt.
5. Unsalted butter: Butter without any added salt.
6. Sweet cream butter: Butter made from cream with an acidity level not exceeding 0.2%.

The 20^th century had seen unprecedented increase in fishing capacity; in terms of the vessel number, increase in size of the vessels and advances in the electronic and navigational equipment coupled with easily manufactured and durable fishing nets. The effect of these innovations sequentially, was the burgeoning in the fish production, plateauing of catches and the myth of inexhaustibility of fishery resources in the sea was proven wrong. A large number of stocks world over have declined and the stock status of many are now alarming, but still the trend towards larger, more powerful and faster vessels continues.

Global fisheries production has reached a plateau and is now hovering around 80 million tonnes during the last decade. It is also noted that the status of world’s marine fish stocks have not improved overall. About 31.4% of assessed fish stocks are fished at a biologically unsustainable level and therefore overfished. Fully fished stocks accounted for 58.1% and underfished stocks 10.5%. It is evident that most of the stocks are fully fished with no further potential for increase in production.

The importance of reducing bycatch and minimizing ecological impacts of fishing operations has been emphasized by scientists and fishery managers and recognized by fishermen. Trawl fisheries in different parts of the world are now being required to use bycatch reduction devices as result of pressure from conservation groups and legal regimes introduced by the governments. The Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (FAO, 1995), which gives guidelines for sustainable development of fisheries, stresses the need for developing selective fishing gears in order to conserve resources, protect non-targeted resources and endangered species. Although the problems of using non-legal gears and designs often with smaller mesh sizes are reported. Most of the problems due to generation of bycatch and damage to the ecosystem function, has been implicated due to trawling.

Introduction

The economic choice of any process is the criterion for efficient utilization of the by-product that is produced along side of main product. During manufacture of major dairy products, the dairy industry also ends up in producing different by-products. Various by-products of dairy industry are skim milk, butter milk , whey and ghee residue. Dairy industry is particularly confronted with the problem of economic utilization of whey and ghee residue. The techno-economical problems associated with utilization of these by-products, is now receiving considerable attention. More efficient, cost effective and sophisticated technologies have opened up new vistas for manufacture of number of derived by-products. Further more the market for dairy by-products, as an ingredients in other consumer food products like snacks, ready meals and microwavable food products, has been growing.

Q.1 We can apply the change of origin or change of scale or change of origin and scale both to the original data in case of applying ANOVA technique to make the analysis easy and speedy.

Q.2 The conclusions drawn from ANOVA based on transformed data or original data are different.

C₃ cycle or Calvin cycle: It is a process of dark reaction of photosynthesis. It is also called as photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle which results in the production of sugars. It occurs not only in C₃ plants but also in C₄ and CAM pathway also. It occurs in the mesophyll cells. It is described in three stages: (1) Carboxylation, (2) Reduction, (3) Regeneration.

C₃ plants: Group of plants with calvin cycle wherein the first stable product is 3-phosphoglyceric acid, a three carbon compound. e.g., rice, wheat, barley.

C₄ cycle: C₄ cycle may also referred to as the dicarboxylic acid cycle or Hatch and Slack Cycle. The first stable product is a C₄ compounds like oxaloacetic acid. Here CO₂ molecule is accepted by phosphoenol pyruvate in the carboxylation reaction. The main purpose of this cycle is carbondioxide enrichment.

C₄ plants: Plants with Hatch-slack pathway and kranz anatomy of leaves in which the first stable product is four carbon compound, oxaloacetic acid. These plants posses high photosynthetic efficiency and low photorespiration rate. e.g., sugarcane, maize, sorghum.

Cajanus cajan ( L ) Millsp. (Fabaceae): Eng.- Pigeon Pea / Cajan Pea; Hindi – Arhar; Kash.- Lokut Chana [RC]. An annual erect herb, stem woody, leaves trifoliate. Flowers yellowish diffuse red, borne in axillary racemes. Pods flattish with fawn brown coloured seeds having light yellow cotyledons. The pulse has been lately introduced and is under marginal cultivation.

Canonical analysis: The canonical analysis can be used in the case when both measurable and non-measurable variables for the purpose of simultaneously predicting a set of dependent variables from their joint covariance with a set of independent variables.

C - enamel can: The sulphur resistant lacquer is golden coloured and the can coated with it are called C-enamel can or sulphure resistant can, used for packing non acid products (Plate 143).

CA storage: Storage of commodities under gaseous atmosphere like gas storage, where the composition of atmosphere is controlled accurately. MA and CA differ only in degree of control and CA is more exact. These storage methods in combination with refrigeration markedly enhance storage life of fruit and vegetables (Plate 144).

CAC: It stands for Codex Alimentarious commission (1962). It is a joint commission of FAO and WHO, comprising of 146 member countries. It ensures consumer food safety, establish fair practices in food trade and promote the development of international food standards. CAC make standards for food additives, veterinary drugs, pesticide residue and other miscellaneous substances that affect consumer safety. These are published in Codex Alimentarius.

Cafeterias: Self service restaurants. Often located within larger establishments, such as department stores, schools or universities.
Caffeine: One of the xanthine alkaloids naturally present in several plant foods, including tea, coffee and cola nuts. Acts as a stimulant. Used as an ingredient in some soft drinks, including cola beverages and energy drinks.
Cake batters: Batters usually prepared from flour, eggs, butter or margarines, and sugar that are used to make cakes. Other ingredients are added ac- cording to the type of cakes to be made.
Cake flour: A very high-extraction low-protein white flour used for making very lighttextured cakes such as angel cake.
Cake mixes: Powdered formulations containing all the ingredients required to make cakes.
Cake mixtures: The five important cake mixtures are basic, Victoria sponge, Genoese, pound and fatless. The first two use a chemical raising agent; the last three rely on air beaten into the egg for raising.
Cake: Soft bakery products produced by baking a batter containing flour, sugar, baking powders and beaten eggs, with or without shortenings. It may also incorporate root vegetables, principally carrot. According to the final product, other ingredients are also included, such as flavourings, nuts, chocolate and dried fruits.

Botany :The cabbage plant, Brassica oleracea, is an herbaceous annual or biennial vegetable in the family Cruciferae grown for its edible head. The head of the cabbage is round and forms on a short thick stem. The leaves are thick and alternating with wavy or lobed edges and the roots are are fibrous and shallow. The plant produces large yellow flowers. The densely leaved heads can range in size from 0.5 to 3.6 kg (1-8 lb) depending on variety. The plant is usually grown as an annual.

Cabbage (Brassica oleracea, ssp. capitata, 2n = 2x = 18, family Brassicaceae = Cruciferae, cross-pollinated due to sporophytic incompatibility) comes under generic name cole crops. It is a rich source of calcium, and vitamins A and C. It is generally consumed as cooked vegetable, boiled or stewed, raw salad, soup and sauerkraut which is cabbage cut into fine slices that undergo lactic acid fermentation in a brine made of its own juice with salt. Sauerkraut was traditionally made at home in Germany and other European countries, but nowadays it is mainly an industrial product.

According to Indian Horticulture Database-2014 (NHB, 2015), global production of cabbage spread over more than 125 countries has been 70.64 million tons from 2.42 million ha area with a productivity of 29.2 tons/ha. Of this total global cabbage production, top ranking China (32.80 million tons from 0.98 million ha) and second ranking India (9.04 million tons from 0.40 million ha) jointly contributed about 59% of the production. Other countries in the descending order of the production were Russian Federation, Japan, South Korea, Ukraine, Indonesia, Poland, Romania and USA. In terms of productivity (tons/ha), South Korea (71.2 t/ha) and Japan (67.6 t/ha) were far ahead than the rest of the countries which were in the range of 20.1 to 42.9 tons/ha.

During 2017-18, also Indian cabbage production was 9.04 million tons from 0.40 million ha (4 lakh ha) area giving a productivity of 22.6 t/ha. Thus in India, cabbage area seems to be stabilized at 4 lakh ha. The top ten cabbage producing states in India are West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Assam, MP, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Karnataka and UP (Horticulture Statistics at a Glance-2018, MAFW, 2018).

Cacao Mealy Bug : Planococcus lilacinus : Pseudococcidae

The adult female mealy bug is 3.9 mm in length and 2.25 mm in width. Eggs are laid on the plant parts within a mass of tangled waxy strands, a female laying 50 to 300 eggs. The eggs hatch in less than 6 hours and the nymphs feeding on the plant juice become full-grown in 20-25 days with a mean of 23 days in the case of females and 17 to 20 days for the males. The male nymph assumes a pupal period which lasts for 4 to 6 days and the adult male is winged. They live for 2-3 days while the adult female has longevity of 12 -16 days. The females dominate the population, 67.6 per cent of the crawlers developing into female mealy bugs.

Cacti are eulogized as ‘Plants of 21st century’. They have gained popularity due to many exciting shapes, blooms, ease of culture and long life without least care. Cacti are categorized as fleshy stem succulent with photo-synthetically active stem. Good for indoor decoration in pot, outdoor decoration, landscaping, public garden, rock garden, etc.
The family Cactaceae includes approximately 131 genera and 1,750 species. But different authors mention the number of genera differently between 30 to 200. Members are distributed chiefly in semi-desert or drier regions of tropical and sub-tropical America, and also in Africa, Mauritius, Seychelles, India, Sri Lanka and Australia. Mainly the Cactaceae are the succulents of New World. Main species of Old World is Rhipsalis. Some of the larger genera along with their number of reported species are Mammillaria (200-300), Opuntia (250), Echinocereus (75), Rhipsalis (60), Cereus (50), Cephalcereus (48), Echinopsis (35), Epiphyllum (21) and Pereskia (20).
The classification of the family Cactaceae remains uncertain as of August 2023. Since the mid-1990s, the system produced by the International Cactaceae Systematics Group (ICSG) of the International Organization for Succulent Plant Study has been used as the basis of many published classifications. Hunt (2006) recognized Cactaceae family has 4 sub-families viz. Pereskioideae (the leaf cactus, 20 spp.), Opuntioideae (300 spp.), Cactoideae (1,000 spp.) and Maihuenioideae (2 spp.). Three tribes: Pereskieae, Opuntieae, Cereae. Tribe Cereae has 8 sub-tribes: Cereanae, Hylocereanae, Echinocereanae, Echiocactanae, Cactanae, Coryphanthanae, Epiphyelanae, Rhipsolidanae. The cacti of sub-tribe ‘Echinocereanae’ are commonly known as ‘Hedgehogs’.

I. General information

1. All cacti are succulents
2. All succulents are not cacti
3. All the genus belonging to the family Cactaceae are native of America
4. A genus in Cactaceae family which is not native of America is Rhipsalis
5. Sedum and Sempervivum are native to temperate Europe
6. Aporocactus, Rhipsalis and Schlumbergera are native of Mexico
7. Dischidia and Hoya are native of South-East Asia

Cacti and succulents are two important groups of ornamentals both for indoor plantscape and outdoor gardening. Unlike other ornamental plants, these have not been fully exploited for landscaping purpose. Careful selection and proper maintenance are the key factors for successful culture of cacti and succulents. There is lot of variation in growth habit, flowering and hardiness which make them enable for outdoor landscape as well as pot plant.

Being little uncommon in shape, size, growth habit in comparison to other ornamentals, cacti and succulents are good addition to create curiosity in the gardens. Every kind of garden has got some spots difficult to develop properly by other common ornamental plants. Selected cacti and succulents in combination with stones / boulders can make such corners presentable and attractive. Moreover, flowers of cacti and succulents are very colourful and attractive deserving to find place in all types of garden. Foliage of some of the succulents like Agave, Kalanchoe, Dudleya, Furcraea, Sanseveria are remarkable and added attraction in potted form for interior decoration. Landscape designers and horticulturists should make use of these potential groups in extensive way.

Cactus: A succulent plant with a thick fleshy stem which typically bears spines, lacks leaves and has brilliantly coloured flowers.

Succulents: Plants that have some parts that are more than normally thickened and fleshy, usually to retain water in arid climates or soil conditions.

Together cactus and succulents are important group of ornamental plants which have the ability to store water and survive in hot and dry conditions.

Cactaceae family comprises of perennial shrubs or trees characterized with the presence of spines which arise from specialized axillary meristems (areoles), which in some taxa may also bear fine barbed hairs called glochids. A large family consisting of about 124 genera and 1,427 species. It is native to North and South America and widely distributed from Canada to Chile. Nowadays they are found growing in many countries like Australia, South Africa, and Mediterranean countries. They are highly adaptable to drier regions because of their characteristic leaflessness nature. Since cacti are succulent in nature that’s the reason that all cacti are succulents but all succulents are not cacti. Cacti conserve water by two means, first presence of cuticle which prevents water loss and second it is CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) plant where stomata opens at night and close during day time therefore prevents water loss.

Cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica), commonly known as prickly pear, belongs to the family Cactaceae. In local parlence, cactus is called nagphani or danda thohar. In Tamil Nadu, it is commonly known as chapathi balli. The word “cactus” derived through Latin from the ancient Greek kaktos, a name used by Theophrastus for a spiny plant (Johnson et al., 1972) which may have been the Cynara cardunculus (Sonnante et al., 2007). It is a storehouse of virtues that have been commercially unexploited so far in India. In addition, certain genera, such as Optuntia and Nopalea have economically useful plant parts. Different parts of the cactus can be used as fruit and vegetable for human consumption, fodder for cattle, and raw material for various industries to prepare plywood, soap, dyes, adhesives and glue, pharmaceutical products for treating blood sugar and various other disorders, and cosmetics such as shampoo, cream, and body lotions, etc. (Barbera et al., 1995 and  Pimienta, 1994). Similarly, the tender young pads of Optunia and Nopalea species, known as nopalitos, are extensively used as a fresh green vegetable in Mexico and Texas. Even its seeds can be used as flavouring agents. Use of cactus pear as a waterproof paint for homes is also reported.

Cactus (Opuntia ficus-indica), commonly known as prickly pear, belongs to the family Cactaceae. In local parlence, cactus is called nagphani or danda thohar. In Tamil Nadu, it is commonly known as chapathi balli. The word “cactus” derived through Latin from the ancient Greek kaktos, a name used by Theophrastus for a spiny plant (Johnson et al., 1972) which may have been the Cynara cardunculus (Sonnante et al., 2007). It is a storehouse of virtues that have been commercially unexploited so far in India. In addition, certain genera, such as Optuntia and Nopalea have economically useful plant parts. Different parts of the cactus can be used as fruit and vegetable for human consumption, fodder for cattle, and raw material for various industries to prepare plywood, soap, dyes, adhesives and glue, pharmaceutical products for treating blood sugar and various other disorders, and cosmetics such as shampoo, cream, and body lotions, etc. (Barbera et al., 1995 and Pimienta, 1994). Similarly, the tender young pads of Optunia and Nopalea species, known as nopalitos, are extensively used as a fresh green vegetable in Mexico and Texas. Even its seeds can be used as flavouring agents. Use of cactus pear as a waterproof paint for homes is also reported.

Cacti in pots may be placed outside in the summer to ornament gardens or patios, and then kept under cover during the winter (Anderson, 1999). Less drought-resistant epiphytes, such as epiphyllum hybrids, Schlumbergera also called Thanksgiving or Christmas cactus and Hatiora called the Easter cactus, are widely cultivated as houseplants. Cacti may also be planted outdoors in regions with suitable climates. Concern for water conservation in arid regions has led to the promotion of xeriscaping.

Introduction
 
Agricultural activity in the arid and semi-arid divided into two main components are plant production and animal production. Animal production is associated with a component of a large proportion of workers in the agricultural sector, either individually or as part of agricultural activity Integrative. The livestock are plays major role in the lives of the rural population to the availability of several important products such as meat and dairy products.

Farm animals in the arid and semi-arid depend on their feeding mainly on crop residues and natural pastures that do not meet their needs due to scarcity of resources in these regions. Such scarcity is caused by a number of factors; the most important factor is limited agricultural land devoted to cultivation of fodder crops, low rainfall and the deterioration of natural pastures. However, there are many studies in different countries suggesting the possibility of widespread exploitation of cactus as a strategic resource, especially in the areas of low rainfall and scarce feed resources (FAO 2007). Those studies recommend the use Cactus to feed cows, goats, sheep and rabbits without causing any problems to the animals’ health. In addition, it can be used as medicine and cosmetics for humans and for many other uses.

The name CACTUS was originally given by Theophrastus, to a spiny plant of Sicily in Italy.

Act on circular muscular fibres, hence constrictions. It is the heart and arteries especially that at once respond to the influence of Cactus, producing very characteristic constrictions as of an iron band. This sensation is found in various places, oesophagus, bladder, etc. The mental symptoms produced correspond to those found when there are heart affections, sadness and melancholy. Haemorrhage, constrictions, periodicity, and spasmodic pains. Whole body feels as if caged, each wire being twisted tighter. Atheromatous arteries and weak heart. Congestion; irregular distribution of blood. Favors formation of clots speedily. Great periodicity. Toxic goiter with cardiac symptoms. Cactus is pulseless, painting and prostrated.

We use Cactus for constriction of the heart. It feels as if an iron band were preventing the normal movement of the heart. The pain is worse when the patient is lying on the left side.

Cactus has four leading indications, viz. haemorrhage, constriction, periodicity and spasmodic pain. The whole body feels as if it is caged, with each wire being twisted tighter.

In case of heart problems, there is a fluttering and palpitation of the heart, an irregularity in the action of the heart. The patient suffers from endocarditis, an inflammation of the layer of the epithelial cells which lines the cavities of the heart. There may be mitrial insufficiency with palpitation. There may be swelling of the left hand, of the left leg and foot. The left arm is numb. The circulation of the blood is spasmodic, irregular.

Cactus pear (Opuntia ficus indica (L.) Mill.) commonly known as Prickly pear or Tuna, which have been identified and established as vegetable, fruit and fodder crop and considered as an important fruit crop for semi-arid and arid regions.  In Indian arid and semi- arid regions, it is called Nagphani and produces small size fruits in which number of seed is available. It is grown wildly and unexploited. It is thorny plant and generally used for bio –fencing to protect fields from wild animals (Singh, 2000;  Pareek et al., 2001) . However, exotic cactus pear produces edible fruits and its tender cladodes can be used to prepare vegetable, salad, pickle and as animal fodder (Singh and Felker, 1998). Owing to the presence of Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM) pathway, cacti have about four to five times more efficiency of water to dry matter conversion than even C4 plants such as maize (Nobel, 1988). The species which produce edible fruits are Opuntia ficus indica (L.) Mill; O. megacantha Salm dyck; O. amyclaea Tenore; O.streptacantha Limaire; O. robusta Wandl; O. lindhaimeri Engelm . Fruits are rich source of sugar, vitamins and minerals, whereas its tender green cladodes are used as tasty and nutritious vegetable like lettuce and spinach (Rodriguez -Felix and Cantwell, 1988).

Introduction

Cactus pear belongs to Cactaceae family, is widely grown in Mexico and distributed in arid and semi arid tracts of several other parts of the world, such as Australia, Africa, USA and the Mediterranean basin and South East Asia. The future of arid and semi-arid areas of the World largely depends on the development of sustainable agricultural systems based on the use of appropriate crops. Suitable crops are those that successfully cope with water shortage, high temperature, variabilities, poor soils, and easy management to provide food and forage to poor farmers and herders. Opuntias fit most of the above described requirements. In addition, Opuntias play an important ecological role in combating desertification as well as producing fruits and vegetables for human consumption, forage or fodder for livestock, biomass for energy purposes, cochineal for carmine production, and numerous by-products (beverages, vegetarian cheese, drugs and cosmetics). They also provide shelter and food for various wildlife species in arid environments. The fruit known as tuna is a fleshy berry, varying in shape, size, and colour and has a consistent number of hard seeds. The fairly high sugar content and low acidity of the fruit makes it palatable and delicious. Cactus pear was largely treated as underutilized crop by the scientific world until the beginning of 1980, when there was a multiplication of research and symposia, resulting in a large number of publications, including books and book chapters. Recent research finding has, in fact, revealed the high content of some chemical constituents, which can give added value to this crop on a nutritional and bioactive profile. High levels of betalains, taurine, calcium, magnesium, and antioxidants are nutraceutically important. Moreover, some of the constituents show promising in terms of health beneficial quality. Cactus pear products could supplement to nutritional security and human health. The diverse genotypes of Cactus pear have different coloured fruit that show the presence of different antioxidants profiles.

Computer-Aided Design (CAD) is the use of Computer Technology for the design of objects which are real or virtual. CAD involves more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey information such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances according to application-specific conventions. CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or curves, surfaces, and solids in three-dimensional (3D) objects.

Model organisms are widely used in biological researches to describe basic biological processes. When selecting living organisms as models to work with, a wide range of characteristics are used which include: 1) rapid development with short life cycles, 2) small adult size, 3) ready availability and 4) tractability. Being small, growing rapidly and being readily available are crucial in terms of housing them, given the budget and space limitations of research and teaching laboratories. Tractability relates to the ease with which they can be manipulated. Many model organisms have been used including fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, the most obvious organism used for teaching Mendelian genetics and developmental biology; Escherichia coli, a favoured organism for molecular biological studies involving recombinant DNA technology. Research into the molecular and developmental biology of C. elegans was begun in 1974 by Sydney Brenner and it has since been used extensively as a model organism.

C. elegans is a popular research organism as it possesses all the characteristics mentioned, yet shares many essential biological properties with humans. For instance, researchers who study apoptosis (programmed cell death) use C. elegans as an experimental organism in the hope of finding treatments for certain types of human cancers, such as leukaemia.

C. elegans is easy and inexpensive to maintain in laboratory conditions with a diet of E. coli. Embryogenesis occurs in about 12 hours, development to the adult stage occurs in 2.5 days and the life span is 2-3 weeks. The short, hermaphroditic life cycle (~3 days) and large number (300+) of offspring of C. elegans allows large-scale production of animals within a short period of time. Since C. elegans has a small body size, in vivo assays can be conducted in a 96 well microplate. Laboratory stocks of C. elegans can even be stored in liquid nitrogen for 25 years without losing their viability. The transparent body allows clear observation of all cells in mature and developing animals. Furthermore, the intensively studied genome, complete cell lineage map, knockout (KO) mutant libraries and established genetic methodologies including mutagenesis, transgenesis and RNA interference (RNAi) provide a variety of options to manipulate and study C. elegans at the molecular level and for a more detailed presentation of genetic and genomic resources.

Model organisms are widely used in biological researches to describe basic biological processes. When selecting living organisms as models to work with, a wide range of characteristics are used which include: 1) rapid development with short life cycles, 2) small adult size, 3) ready availability and 4) tractability. 

Cage and pen systems are increasingly utilized in the rearing of fish seed, especially for coldwater and hill stream species. These systems provide controlled environments that facilitate optimal growth and development of fish from hatchery or wild-caught seed to pre-grow-out sizes before their eventual transfer to growout units or release into the wild. Cages are enclosed structures typically constructed from netting and supported by a floating or fixed framework made of bamboo, wood, or metal. These are deployed in sheltered areas of lakes, rivers, estuaries, or reservoirs. Cages allow continuous water exchange, ensuring fresh, oxygenated water while confining the fish.
• Structure: Floating or fixed; made of durable netting.
• Water flow: Allows free exchange with the surrounding water.
• Application: Ideal for pre-grow-out rearing.
• Advantages: Easy monitoring, efficient space use, reduced land requirement.
Pens are partially enclosed sections of a natural water body, demarcated using netting or barriers. Unlike cages, pens are bottom-open systems where the natural substrate remains accessible. Pens are commonly set up in shallow, calm water bodies such as lakes, bays, or slow-moving rivers.
• Structure: Encloses a section of a water body using fixed net barriers.
• Environment: Mimics more natural conditions compared to cages.
• Usage: Suitable for species requiring substrate interaction.
The wider popularity of cage culture as compared to pen culture may be due to its greater flexibility in terms of siting the structures. For example, cages may be installed in bays, lagoons, straits, and open coasts as long as they are protected from strong monsoonal winds and rough seas. Floating cages can also be set up in deep lakes and reservoirs, and in rivers and canal systems, and even in deep

Cage layer fatigue is a term used to describe leg weakness and acute deaths in chickens in cages, and is caused by inadequate calcium, phosphorus and Vitamin D levels in the blood stream. Calcium is required for muscle function, bone formation, and egg shell formation. This condition may be seen even in floor birds under certain conditions. It is seen most often in young hens early in production.

In recent years, the global agricultural landscape has witnessed a paradigm shift towards more sustainable and ethical practices, with a particular focus on the well- being of animals. One such notable transformation is evident in the egg production industry, where traditional methods are being reconsidered in favour of more humane alternatives. Cage-free farming has emerged as a promising path, not only for meeting the demands of a conscientious consumer base but also for addressing concerns related to animal welfare. Cage-free farming represents a departure from conventional egg production systems that confine laying hens to small, restrictive cages. Instead, it offers an environment that allows hens to express natural behaviors, such as walking, spreading their wings, and nesting.

Description and Distribution
Sweet Flag or Calamus is reported to be common in Kashmir and Kumaon ranges of the Himalayan forests. The rhizomes are collected from the Himalaya forests and brought to Kathgodan, from where they are despatched to Mumbai, Kolkota and Kanuaj. It is a semi-aquatic perennial herb with a creeping and much branched aromatic rhizome. The rhizome is cylindrical or slightly compressed, about 19-25 mm in diameter and about 10 cm long. Externally, it is light brown or pinkish in color, and, white and spongy within. It is thoroughly washed in water, freed from dirt, and rootlets are removed and then carefully dried at a low temperature. It deteriorates with age and is subject to attack by worms. It is this dried rhizome, which constitutes Calamus or Sweet Flag, which is used as a condiment and as a pharmaceutical product . It has a reputation as a healing herb for its use in medicine. It is found wild as a water weed in shallow margins of creeks, lakes, pools and some rivers, throughout India and Sri Lanka, ascending to 1830 meter above mean sea level in the Himalayas. The plant thrives in marshy places and in most situations, like the edges of lakes and banks of streams. It is cultivated in one district , Kotagere, in Karnataka State, India. Curiously enough, the cultivation of Sweet Flag has not been extended to any other part of the State. It is also cultivated in Europe and USA, more for medicinal purposes.
Area, Production And International Trade
No reliable information is available on any of the above aspects in India, except that it is traded both for medicinal and condiment purposes.

This great Hahnemannian antipsoric is a constitutional remedy. Its chief action is on the glands, skin and bones. Increased general and local perspiration, swelling of glands, scrofulous and rachitic conditions generally offer numerous opportunities for the application of Calcarea. A jaded state, mental or physical, due to overwork. Persons of scrofulous type, who take cold easily, with increased mucous secretion, children who grow fat, are large bellied, with large head, pale skin, chalky look, affections caused by working in water. Children crave eggs and eat dirt and other indigestible things; are prone to diarrhoea. Calcarea patient is fat, fair, flabby and perspiring.

In cases of deficient or irregular bone development, deformed extremities, a crooked spine, a softening of the bone, Calcarea Carb comes handy. While the Sulphur patient might be usually thin, lean and wiry, the Calcarea patient might be obese. But like Sulphur, Calcarea carb helps in easy relapses, interrupted convalescence.

Introduction
The word “calcareous” has been commonly used as the generic description of all materials containing calcium carbonates greater than 10%. In the context of agricultural problem soils, calcareous soils are soils in which a high amount of calcium carbonate dominates the problems related to agricultural land use. They are characterized by the presence of calcium carbonate in the parent material and by a calcic horizon, a layer of secondary accumulation of carbonates (usually Ca or Mg) in excess of 15% calcium carbonate equivalent and at least 5% more carbonate than an underlying layer. Calcareous soils are common in the arid areas of the earth (FAO, 2016) occupying >30% of the earth’s surface. In the world Reference Base (WRB) soil classification system calcareous soils may mainly occur in the Reference soil group of calcisols.
Formation / genesis of calcareous soils
The soil are formed largely by the weathering of calcareous rocks and fossil shell beds like varieties of chalk, marl , lime stone and frequently a large amount of phosphates. Soils also can become calcareous through long term irrigation with water contains small amounts of dissolved CaCO3 that can accumulate with time.
The secondary CaCO3 are formed under arid and semi-arid climatic conditions, when the carbonate concentration in the soil solution remains High Accumulation starts in the fine and medium sized pores at the surface of contact between the soil particles. This accumulation may be rather concentrated in a narrow zone of the solum or more dispersed depending upon the quantity and frequency of rainfall, topography, soil texture and vegetation. In high rainfall area i.e. in highly weathered soils, CaCO3 is dispersed from the surface horizons. While in arid and semi-arid regions due to low rainfall and limited leaching carbonates may be present in relatively high amounts. In medium deep and deep black clay soils carbonates are generally accumulated in subsurface horizons. However in some eroded shallow black soils they may be exposed right at the surface of soils. In some soils CaCO3 deposits are concentrated into layers that may be very hard and impermeable to water also

Introduction

Calcareous soils are those that contain high levels of calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ) that affects soil properties related to plant growth, such as soil water relations and the availability of plant nutrients (Elgabaly, 1973), and give effervescence visibly releasing CO2 gas when treated with dilute 0.1 N hydrochloric acid. The pH of calcareous soil is > 7.0 and also regarded as an alkaline (basic) soil.

Calcareous soils have often more than 15% CaCO3 in the soil that may occur in various forms (powdery, nodules, crusts etc.). Soils with high CaCO3 belong to the Calcisols and related calcic subgroups of other soils. They are relatively widespread in the drier areas of the earth. They occupy >30% of the earth’s surface, and their CaCO3 content varies from just detectable up to 95% (Marschner, 1995).

Formation of calcareous soils

Calcareous soils occur naturally in arid and semi-arid regions because of relatively little leaching. They also occur in humid and semi-humid zones if their parent material is rich in CaCO3 , such as limestone, shells or calcareous glacial tills, and the parent material is relatively young and has undergone little weathering. Some soils that develop from calcareous parent material can be calcareous throughout their profile. This will generally occur in the arid regions where precipitation is scarce. It has been estimated that these soils comprise over one-third of the world’s land surface area (Taalab et al. 2019, Aboukila et al. 2018).

Calcinosis is a condition characterized by the abnormal deposition of calcium salts in soft tissues, often leading to significant morbidity in affected animals. This condition is particularly relevant in grazing animals, as it can be associated with dietary imbalances, exposure to toxic plants, and metabolic disorders. Depending on the etiology, calcinosis can present as dystrophic, metastatic, or calcinosis circumscripta. Understanding the pathogenesis, clinical signs, diagnosis, and management is crucial for prevention and control in grazing animals.
Types of calcinosis
1. Dystrophic calcinosis: This type of calcinosis occurs when calcium deposits in damaged or necrotic tissues despite normal blood calcium levels. Associated with trauma, infections, or localized inflammation.
2. Metastatic calcinosis: This type of calcinosis results from hypercalcemia, which leads to calcium deposition in normal tissues.
Common causes include:
Nutritional imbalances (excessive calcium or vitamin D intake),
Toxic plants (e.g., Cestrum diurnum),
Chronic renal failure, causing disturbances in calcium-phosphorus metabolism,
Paraneoplastic syndromes associated with tumors.

Common elements of natural water that significantly contribute to its hardness include calcium and magnesium ions of these elements leached from rocks. Water hardness reduces the utility of water for domestic use. Calcium hardness sometimes may be helpful because it provides a coating in the pipes which protects them against corrosion.
Principle
When calcium and magnesium are present in the water, EDTA reacts with calcium first. EDTA can be used to directly measure calcium when the pH is raised to a point where magnesium hydroxide is mostly precipitated and an indicator that only combines with calcium is employed. At a pH of 12 to 13, several indicators change colour to indicate that all of the Ca has been incorporated by the EDTA. The variations between an aliquot titrated at pH 10 and one titrated at pH 12 or 13 are what define the amount of magnesium.

Estimation of Calcium in Feeds, Fodders and Faeces
(Titrimetric method of AOAC, 1965)
Principle

When a solution containing calcium is treated with ammonium oxalate, all the calcium present is precipitated as calcium oxalate, The precipitate on treatment with sulphuric acid dissolves, forming calcium sulphate liberating free oxalic acid which is quantitatively estimated by titration against standard N/10 potassium permanganate solution to arrive at the calcium content present in the given solution. The reactions which take place are given below:

CALCIUM

Calcium is important in imparting structure and permeability to cell membrane. Deficiency produces general breakdown of membrane structure. Calcium enhances the uptake of NO₃ ^– N and interrelated with NO₃ ^– metabolism. It regulates cation uptake, required for cell elongation and cell division. Deficiency causes failure of terminal buds and apical tips of roots to develop. Blossom end rot of tomato, bitter pit of apples are due to calcium deficiency. Calcium is beneficial in imparting good soil structure.

It is immobile in plant. Very little translocation of calcium in the phloem is observed. Hence there is poor supply of calcium to fruits and storage organs. Downward translocation of calcium is also limited. Hence roots fail to enter the low calcium soils.

The first step in applying the correct rate of fertilizer is calculating crop nutrient requirements. A soil test is the only way to measure how much P₂ O₅ and K₂ O are available in soils, and soil tests are available through several private and public laboratories.

Fertilizer Calculation

To compute the equivalent amount of fertilizer necessary to supply the corresponding amounts of nutrients, the following formula is used:

Accurate mix calculation is essential for achieving the desired composition, quality, cost, and regulatory compliance of ice cream. This chapter introduces methods used to calculate formulations based on fat, milk solids-not-fat, sugar, total solids, and other components. It explains the Pearson’s Square method, serum-point calculations, simple mix calculations, and least-cost formulation approaches. The chapter demonstrates how mathematical formulation can translate ingredient specifications into a practical manufacturing recipe. Proper calculation helps maintain consistency between batches while controlling ingredient costs and product characteristics. The chapter therefore provides a practical foundation for students, technologists, and manufacturers involved in formulation development, production planning, cost optimization, and quality management.