eChapters

The nutritive value of feedstuffs is generally expressed in terms of protein and energy value. The protein and energy value usually referred in ruminants are DCP (Digestible crude protein) and TDN (Total digestible nutrients), because the feeds used in the diet of ruminants have a vide variability in their digestibility, hence after removal of the variable fraction the requirement of nutrients is expressed. Starch Equivalent (SE) is also the measure of energy but its usefulness is limited to certain extent, due to involvement of tedious and expensive process.

NTSYSpc 2.0 software is used for various types of analysis including calculation of similarity index values and construction of dendrogram. Construction of dendrogram using gel data in the form of bands. This software accepts zero-one data.

NTSYSpc 2.0 software is used for various types of analysis including calculation of similarity index values and construction of dendrogram. Construction of dendrogram using gel data in the form of bands. This software accepts zero-one data.

6.1. Calculation of Energy Requirements for Field Operations
The energy needs for a certain field activity can be determined by adding the amounts of human, bullock, mechanical, and/or electric energy consumed.

Operational Costs for Various Power Sources
Manual power

In the case of human labour, the wages of unskilled employment are charged on an hourly or daily basis (as determined by the location).In the case of research farms, the costs for operating a pair of bullocks are determined on the basis of the cost of a pair of bullocks, the salary of an operator, the cost of bullock feed, and any other expenditures (as imposed in a given location). For the farmer’s fields, however, the real hiring expenses are used as the foundation.

1. Calibration of Milk Butyrometer

Introduction

Butyrometer is used for determination of fat for milk and milk products by Gerber method. The milk butyrometer is a graduated vessel, which are designed in such a way that the internal volume of each unit is 0.125 ml which is corresponding to 1 percent fat. Sometimes due to manufacturer’s error, the volume of one unit of milk butyrometer is not exactly equal to 0.125 which leads to subsequent error in results in milk fat. So before starting to use a new butyrometer, it is essential to calibrate for its efficiency in the laboratory. Mercury is used to calibrate milk butyrometer.

Apparatus

Milk butyrometer (0 – 10% graduation), analytical balance

27.1. What?

Seed drills are designed to sow seeds at the recommended seed rate with precision and at the desired depth. Proper adjustments are made to the seed metering system to ensure efficient use of seed drills. This aspect is vital to have a good crop stand.

The seed size varies between crop and their varieties. In addition, the seed metering systems are based on volume displacement. Therefore, if one lot of seeds varies in size and weight from another, two different amounts or number of seeds will be metered if the drill setting is not changed. For this reason, metering systems should be calibrated each time when put to use.

The method of calibration will be given in detail in the manual provided along with the seed drill.

Introduction 
Having explored the fundamental principles and various types of elementary crop growth models in the previous chapter, we now arrive at a pivotal juncture in their journey from theoretical constructs to practical, dependable tools. It‘s one thing to conceptualize and build a mathematical representation of crop growth; it‘s quite another to ensure that this model accurately reflects realworld plant behavior and can be reliably used for predicting outcomes and informing critical agricultural decisions. This chapter, Calibration, Validation, Verification, and Sensitivity of Elementary Crop Models,” will guide you through the indispensable processes that establish a model‘s credibility and utility. We will delve into the systematic steps involved in calibration, where we meticulously fine-tune a model‘s parameters to accurately reflect a specific crop‘s response within a particular environment, effectively adapting the general model to local conditions. Following this, we will explore validation, a rigorous process of independently testing the model‘s predictive power against datasets not used during calibration, ensuring its robustness and generalizability. Beyond accuracy, we will also cover verification, which confirms the model‘s logical consistency and computational correctness, ensuring that its internal workings are sound. Finally, we will examine sensitivity analysis, a crucial technique for understanding how changes in various input factors—especially weather parameters—or internal model coefficients influence the model‘s outputs, thereby revealing the model‘s critical drivers and potential vulnerabilities. These four processes are far more than mere technical formalities; they form the bedrock upon which the utility, accuracy, and trustworthiness of any crop model, no matter how elementary, are firmly built. By engaging with these essential steps, we can transform theoretical frameworks into powerful instruments capable of supporting sustainable agricultural planning, risk management, and adaptive strategies in a dynamic climate.

This chapter introduces Calla Lily as an attractive bulbous ornamental crop valued for its colourful spathes, foliage and long-lasting cut flowers. It examines origin, distribution, genetics and botanical characteristics of Zantedeschia species. The chapter covers protected cultivation, varieties, environmental requirements, propagation, nutrition, irrigation, pest and disease management, harvesting, grading and postharvest handling. It also highlights the commercial potential of Calla Lily in international markets and its emerging importance in Indian floriculture

Abstract: Zantedeschia, commonly known as calla lily, is one of the popular ornamental plant in the world. Zantedeschia are commonly associated with the New Zealand, even though they are native to South Africa. The vegetatively propagated crop is currently the most important rhizomatous geophyte in the world. Most cultivars are grown for cut flowers, variegated or spotted foliage for floral arrangements, flowering potted plants and landscaping. Continued breeding and improvement of Zantedeschia focused on disease resistance, improved floral longevity, novel spathe colour, better bloom quality, longer stems, more flowers/ rhizome and determinate growth habit. Intersectional/interspecific hybridization is hampered by post fertilization barriers, hybrid breakdown, albino hybrid embryo and F₁ sterility. Crossing barriers have been overcome with the use of in vitro embryo rescue. Haploidization and molecular techniques are being used to create homozygous plant and marker assisted selection, respectively.

ABSTRACT

In the studies on callus induction and somatic embryogenesis in acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia S.) var Sai-Sharbati, different ex-plants and different combinations of growth regulators (NAA, IBA and BA) in MS basal media were tried, the results indicated that cotyledonary segment was the best explant for callus induction among root tip hypocotyl stem, leaf, epicotyl stem and shoot tip explants tested of. The callus grown from epicotyl and hypocotyl stem explant was greenish white and compact. Whereas callus derived from cotylidonary segment and leaf segment was green and friable . Root tip and shoot tip did not exhibit callusing. The callus derived from epicotyl stem and hypocptyl stem explant responded shoot bud formation in MS medium supplemented with NAA 0.2mg/l + BA 0.5mg/l with or without ME 100mg/l. In somatic embryogenesis, full grown callus derived from epicotyl stem explant induced embryo formation within 28.33 days and more shoot bud (6.33) formation.

Modes of Culture 

Callus is a mass of undifferentiated plant tissues formed from plant cells or tissue cuttings when grown in culture. Tissues and cells of plant cultured in a liquid medium aerated by agitation grow as suspension of single cells and cell clumps. For growth, the cells require to divide, whereas, the cells breaking up from explant are mature, nondividing. Hence, the differentiated tissue undergoes modifications to become meristematic. This phenomenon of a mature cell reverting back to meristematic state to form undifferentiated callus tissue is called dedifferentiation.

Camel Nomenclature Family: Camelidae Order: artiodactyla (even –toed ungulates) Suborder: Tylopoda (Pad on foot) The family Camelidae includes two genera: Camelus and Lama The genus Camelus consists of two species namely. Camelus dromedarius (unicorn or dromedary) with habitat in dry, hot, arid areas of Africa, Asia and Australia and Camelus bactrianus Double-humped or Bactrian) habitat in cold, dry areas of the central Palearctic Ecozone. These two species are commonly called Old World camels. The Species belonging to the genus Lama are Lama vicugna  Vicunaand Lama guanaco guanaco, Lama glama (llamaand Lama pacos alpaca . These four Species are called New World camels and have their habitat in South America Camels are considered a “ship of the desert” as a means of transport and Towing ability in the desert. The camel also played an important role in civil law and order, defense and battles from antiquity to the presen

Camels could be exploited for augmenting the country’s milk production capacity as a supplementary milk resource in India for the benefit of increasing human population. Since milk production potential of camels in India have remained unexploited and considering its therapeutic utility it can fetch good prices. Camels are raised for milk, meat, fibre (wool and hair), transport and other work; their dung is used as fuel. Milk is often the most important camel product and is the staple food of nomads.

The camel is an important species of the Indian fragile desert ecosystem, a proven icon of adaptation with its unique bio-physiological characteristics and has formidable ways of living in harsh situations of arid and semi-arid regions. The proverbial Ship of Desert earned its epithet on account of its indispensability as a mode of transportation and draught ability in desert. However, its utilities are subject to continuous social and economic changes. The camel has also played a significant role in civil law and order, defence and battles from the ancient times till date. Camels formed an important component of the Mauryan Army (C.322-232 BC) and continued through the Mughal period (1200-1700 AD) to the present times.

Abstract

Camel milk has been known in Asia and Africa for 5000years for its benefits for human health. It is the closest to human mother’s milk and safe for children. Research studies around the world have confirmed that camel milk has better nutritional value as it exhibits many unique and amazing health-promoting properties as compared to cow milk. This milk is considered as a complete food and can be consumed exclusively while meeting all nutritional requirements. Many studies have reported that camel milk contains very high concentrations of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids, low fats, cholesterol, and lactose. It also contains higher amounts of minerals (calcium, iron, magnesium, copper, zinc, and potassium), vitamins B2 and C as compared to cow milk. It does not contains beta lactoglobulin and beta casein that are present in cow milk and that are the main cause of allergy in certain human population. Furthermore, camel milk contains various protective proteins that exert antibacterial, antiviral, and immunological properties. It possesses unique, powerful immune system–boosting components that would exert potential health benefits. It is an alternative for people suffering from cow milk allergy. So camel milk can be considered as next generation super food.

Origin and Distribution of Camel

A camel is an even-toed ungulate within the genus Camelus of the family Camelidae bearing distinctive fatty deposits known as “humps” on its back. There are two species of camel, viz. Camelus dromedarius (single humped dromedary) having habitat in dry hot arid lands of Africa and Asia, and Camelus bacterianus (double humped or bactrian) habitat of cold arid lands of Central palaerctic (a zoogeographical region consisting of Europe, Africa north of the Sahara, and most of Asia north of the Himalayas) region. Family Camelidae also includes other species which are camel like mammals. Those are Lama (Lama glama), Alpaca (Lama pacos), Vicuna (Vicugna vicugna) and Guanaco (Lama guanicoe). These four species are termed as new-world Camelidae having habitat in South America. The Indian camel belongs to Camelus dromedarius. A very small numbers of double-humped camels are also available in Ladakh area of Jammu and Kashmir.

Camel is an important component of desert eco-system. It is capable of traveling long distance in hot, arid and sandy regions carrying men, material and providing energy to agricultural operations. They provide milk, meat, hair and used as work animals. It is believed that Camels were domesticated during the period from 3000 to 2500 BC. Average life expectancy of a camel is 40-50 years. The height at the shoulder and hump of a fully grown adult camel is 1.85 and 2.15 metres, respectively. Camel can run at a speed of up to 65km/h for a short distance and can sustain a speed of up to 40km/h for long distance.

Camels across the world are reared for milk, meat, draught, race and tourism. They are distributed in the African, Arabian and south Asian countries.  Apart from this, a feral population exists in Australia and recent reports indicate that a few animals of the species are also being reared in Europe. The world camel population shows an increasing trend with 12.92 m in 1961 to  24.68 m in 2010 producing 0.38 m tonnes of meat and 2.36 m tonnes of milk per annum.  The top 20 camel rearing countries produce both milk and meat with the exception of India and Pakistan as per FAO. Contrary to this, the research articles and news reports indicate that the species in the two south Asian countries too produce both milk and meat.

The  Camellia  is  one  of  our  most  beautiful  and most  appreciated ornamental  plants belonging to the family Theaceae. The genus Camellia was named by Linnaeus after the Jesuit botanist “Georg Joseph Kamel”. Camellias represent gratitude, love and perfection and are a perfect way to tell someone they possess those qualities. The camellia is the state flower of Alabama. Industrial use of Camellia is in the oil industry. Seeds of several species belonging to the sections Oleifera, Paracamellia, Camellia and Furfuracea are used for extracting edible oil, which is used extensively for cooking in China (Ming, 2000, Gao et al., 2005 and Zhang et al., 2007). In China, more than 3 million hectares are used for camellia oil production and nearly 645000 tons of seeds are harvested each year, which yield nearly 164000 tons of edible oil (Ming, 2000 and Gao et al., 2005).

The Camellia is one of our most beautiful and most appreciated ornamental plants belonging to the family Theaceae. The genus Camellia was named by Linnaeus after the Jesuit botanist “Georg Joseph Kamel”. Camellias represent gratitude, love and perfection and are a perfect way to tell someone they possess those qualities. The camellia is the state flower of Alabama. Industrial use of Camellia is in the oil industry. Seeds of several species belonging to the sections Oleifera, Paracamellia, Camellia and Furfuracea are used for extracting edible oil, which is used extensively for cooking in China (Ming, 2000, Gao et al., 2005 and Zhang et al., 2007). In China, more than 3 million hectares are used for camellia oil production and nearly 645000 tons of seeds are harvested each year, which yield nearly 164000 tons of edible oil (Ming, 2000 and Gao et al., 2005).

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Since it is a native of warm temperate regions (southern China) and thrive throughout a wide area extending from Washinton, D.C., south through Georgia and Florida, west along the Gulf Coast and north along the Pacific Coast as far as Seattle. Species of Camellia are largely distributed in south-eastern and eastern Asia and China, which, being the centre of species diversity, possess more than 80% of the species (Gao et al., 2005).

Diploid Camellia reticulata was discovered in the Jinshajiang valley, Yunnan and Sichuan provinces, China, at an elevation of 1650-2800 m and under high humidity conditions (Xia et al., 1994). Yunnan province is the centre of origin for C. reticulata (Xia et al., 1994). The most important ornamental species is C. japonica L., of which there are over 32000 registered cultivars (Savige, 1993). Today, plants from C. japonica, C. reticulata, C. sasanqua and a group of yellow-flowering species called golden camellias are grown as ornamental plants worldwide. The family can be divided into three groups of similar genera (Prince and Parks, 2002).

Camera Technology Overview

A camera is a device used to capture and store images and videos, either digitally through an electronic image sensor or chemically using a light sensitive material like photographic film. This technology has been crucial in the fields of photography and videography, significantly impacting visual arts, media, entertainment, surveillance, and scientific research. Since its invention in the 19th century, the camera has undergone numerous technological advancements, resulting in a diverse range of types and models in the 21st century.

Etiology

There are 18 species in genus Campylobacter. Campylobacter species in poultry include C. jejuni, C. coli and C. lari. The most predominant species is C. jejuni.

Epizootiology

The infection has been reported in chicken, but the organisms have been isolated from ducks, turkeys, black birds, sparrow and pigeons.

Transmission

Possibly through faeces, as organisms are in the intestinal tract. Egg transmission of bacteria on or in the egg through hatchery is strongly suggested.

In 1886, Escherich observed Campylobacter like organisms in stool samples of children with diarrhoea. In 1913, McFaydean and Stockman first confirmed them as Campylobacter in foetal tissues of aborted sheep. Confirmatory tests were also carried out by Smith in 1918 when similar organisms were isolated from aborted bovine foetuses. The organism was then known as Vibrio foetus. In 1963, due to certain differentiating characteristics, the organisms were separated from Vibrionaceae family and the new genus Campylobacter (means ‘curved rod’) under Campylobacteriaceae family was proposed. 

Properties of genus

1.   Morphology :  Campylobacter is gram negative, comma shaped rods specially in infected tissues and young cultures. The size is 1.5-4 µm by 0.5 µm. When two bacterial cells are found together in a microscopic field, it looks like ‘S’ or ‘wing of gull’ (‘flying seagull’). However in older cultures, the chains of organism appear as long spirals. They are motile by single unipolar/ bipolar unsheathed flagella. Motility is darting or corkscrew type, best observed by dark field microscopy. They are non-sporing. Some species contains S-layer (surface layer), a paracrystalline protein structure composed of S-layer proteins (SLPs). It is external to the outer membrane. It helps the bacteria in immune evasion.

Campylobacter species are slender, curved motile Gram negative rods (0.2 to 0.5 pm wide) with polar flagella. Daughter cells which remain joined have a characteristic gull-winged appearance and long spirals formed by joined cells also occur. These microaerophilic organisms grow best on enriched media in an atmosphere of increased CO2 and decreased oxygen tension. Many Campylobacter species grow on MacConkey agar. They are non-fermentative and oxidase-positive and have variable catalase reactions.
Usual Habitat
Many Campylobacter species are commensals in the intestinal tracts of warm-blooded animals. Campylobacter jejuni and C. lari (formerly C. laridis) colonize the intestines of birds, which can result in faecal contamination of water courses and stored food. A number of Campylobacter species are excreted in the faeces of pigs. Campylobacter fetus subspecies venerealis appears to be adapted principally to bovine preputial mucosa.
Differentiation of Campylobacter Species
Campylobacter species are strictly microaerophilic, requiring an atmosphere of 5 to 10% oxygen and 1 to 10% CO2 for growth. A selective enriched medium such as Skirrow agar is usually used for primary isolation. Differentiation of isolates is based on colonial morphology and certain cultural, biochemical and antibiotic-susceptibility characteristics.
Colonial Morphology
• Campylobacter fetus subspecies venerealis and C.fetus subspecies fetus have small, round, smooth, translucent colonies with a dewdrop appearance.
• Campylobacter jejuni produces small, flat, grey colonies with a spreading, watery appearance.

Introduction

In the past, when television sets entered almost every household and there was a set of TV channels that broadcasted news, daily soaps, songs, etc., a channel named "Discovery" entered the market and soon became very popular among all age groups due to the scientific documentaries that it broadcasted and soon enough took over the market. It's obvious to the eyes that they created something unique, innovative, and possessing utility. The success behind the TV channel was that it tapped the uncontested market and hence had no other channel of its kind to compete with. They created a new niche, and based on this, they generated huge profits, success, and popularity. This strategy is very famous today in the name of the “Blue Ocean Strategy” introduced by Kim and Mauborgne (2005). The same strategy has immense potential in alleviating the agripreneurial ventures wherein the greater homogeneity of the products brings in an issue of increased competition. Hence, being creative and innovative on the part of entrepreneurs can open greater avenues for new products in the market, wherein the new product may benefit from the uncontesting environment in the market.

Abstract

The functioning and stability of terrestrial ecosystem are determined by plant biodiversity and species composition. So far, little attention has been paid to the effects of microbe-plant interactions, particularly the mycorrhizal symbiosis, on ecosystem variability, productivity and plant biodiversity. The most common type of mycorrhizal association is the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) type. The role of AM fungi in the uptake of diffusion limited nutrients like P and in conferring resistance to soil-borne-diseases is well documented.

Technical Term                    Definition

Canal Irrigation System      The system in which irrigation water is supplied through irrigation canals network (main canal, submain canal, distributaries, and

                                            minors) from source of water (reservoirs) to point of application (agricultural lands)

Summary

RNA interference has revolutionized the concepts in regulation of gene expression. RNA interference is the mechanism that controls sequence specific gene silencing by double stranded RNA. These non-coding RNAs are gene specific regulators critical in the transformation of normal cells to a malignant stage. Alterations in the non-coding RNAs have been linked to specific cancers and can serve as diagnostic markers. The ability of exogenously introduced siRNAs to specifically bind its complementary mRNA and down regulate its expression has various applications. It has markedly influenced the way the role of certain genes is investigated in tumorigenesis. The siRNA technology has been effectively functional in identification of new components and blocking the expression of critical mediators in tumorigenesis.

Abstract

C. albicans is a diploid, dimorphic yeast producing three morphologic forms: yeast cells, pseudohyphae and true hyphae. It is an opportunistic pathogen causing various types of candidiasis which are on the increase around the globe. It is a polymorphic yeast with its genome organized in eight diploid chromosome with its genome size ranging between 14.3 and 16 Mb having 5,733 to 6, 318 genes. It has two mating-type like (MTL) alleles that control the mating behavior. In its genetic makeup it resembles with Saccharomyces cerevisiae hence classified in the Saccharomycetales. The chromosome number from tetraploid to diploid is brought about by the parasexual mechanism. Keeping in view the increase of incidence of candidiasis due to C. albicans around the globe, it is important to identify the causative organisms to the species level correctly. Morphological, biochemical, germ tube test and growth on different media are often used for identifying isolated yeasts which sometimes takes days to week to develop in culture hence, rapid identification of Candida species in clinical laboratory is becoming increasingly important. Molecular techniques utilizing amplification of target DNA or PCR amplification of conserved regions of the genome and sequencing of the resulting PCR product and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis of the ribosomal DNA, provides quick and precise methods for diagnostics or, identification of Candida species.

Introduction

1. Serious outbreaks of thrush have been observed in chickens, pigeons, geese, turkeys, pheasants, quail, peacock and many other species of birds.
2. Candida albicans is the most commonly isolated fungus from the outbreak. Mucor spp. and Aspergilli were also found in some cases.
3. The outbreaks are associated with unhygienic conditions and nutritional deficiencies. Infection is more common in young birds up to 10 weeks of age. Morbidity is very high and mortality ranges from 10-75%. Clinical signs are not specific. Poor growth and ruffled feathers are only clinical signs.

Canine mammary gland tumours are the most common type of tumour in the intact female dog. Of all species, dog develops neoplasm twice as frequently as humans, with incidence of skin and mammary tumours being the highest. Tumours of mammary gland are the most common tumours of female dog representing approximately 30-50% of all tumours in bitch and it is the second most common tumour in dog after skin neoplasm and most common malignant tumour in dog.

Defination

Mammary gland tumours arise primarily in the female animal from secretary epithelial, myoepithelial, or, less frequently, mesenchymal elements of mammary tissue.

Human breast cancer (HBC) is a common malady concomitant with a massive death rate throughout the world. It has been reported that around 1.7 million women are globally identified with breast neoplasia, and out of this, half a million female dies from this terrible disease (Torre et al., 2015). Due to the shocking impacts of breast cancer, prevention, and therapeutic interventions have become a priority-based objective for many researchers to understand the biology of breast cancer disease during its progression and development.

Canine parvovirus 2 (CPV-2), the causative agent of  acute haemorrhagic enteritis and myocarditis in dogs, is one of the most important  pathogenic viruses. It is a highly contagious  and often fatal disease.  CPV-2 was first recognized in 1977 and since then it has been well established as an enteric pathogen of dogs throughout the world causing  high morbidity (100%) and frequent mortality up to 10%.   The disease is characterized by 2 prominent clinical forms (i)  enteritis with vomition and diarrhea in dogs of all ages (ii) myocarditis and subsequent heart failure in pups of less than  3 months of age. The virus was named CPV-2 in order to differentiate it from a closely related parvovirus of canine known as CPV-1 or minute  virus of canine (MVC). MVC, a completely different parvovirus, had not been associated with   natural disease until 1992.

Canine transmissible venereal tumours (CTVT) is also known as infectious sarcoma, transmissible venereal tumours (TVT), venereal granuloma (VG), canine transmissible venereal sarcoma (CTVS), transmissible lymphosarcoma or Sticker tumour, is a benign reticuloendothelial tumour of the dog that mainly affects the external genitalia and occasionally the internal. As it is usually transmitted during coitus it mainly occurs in young, sexually mature animal. Canine transmissible venereal tumour is histocytic tumours that may be transmitted among dogs through coitus, licking, biting and sniffing tumour affected areas. CTVT is spread by the transfer of living cells between dogs, usually during mating. The tumour cells are themselves the infectious agents, and the tumours that form are not genetically related to the host dog (Purohit, 2008; wikipedia ctvt).

Etiology

It is a rare canine dermatological condition. This condition is subdivided into two groups. In the first group, it is seen in Siberian husky and Alaskan malamutes. It is due to inherited impairment in the zinc absorption or metabolism. In the second group, it is due to use of high plant phytates diet (zinc absorption prevention), commercial or home prepared diet which is zinc deficient or diet is over supplemented with calcium and other vitamins and minerals which impair zinc absorption. Group two is mostly seen in large breed dogs and young adults.

Predation and cannibalism are entirely two different processes. In predation, the animal used to consume other species then their own, whereas cannibalism is a practice of eating one’s own kind. Cannibalism is a common behavior in animal kingdom and has been recorded in more than 1500 species. It is reported in an increasing number of fish species belonging to group/ families such as air-breathing catfishes (Clariidae), pikes (Esocidae), percids (Percidae), characids (Characidae), latids (Latidae), gadids (Gadidae) and in over 30 other families, including cyprinids (Cyprinidae) and salmonids (Salmonidae) (Smith & Reay, 1991; Hecht & Peinaar, 1993; Folkvord, 1991; Baras, 1998; Qin et al., 2004). Cannibalism is a common ecological interaction and depends on genetics and fish behavior; mediated by appetite and metabolism and is promoted by size differences, and is more intense among fast growing larvae and young juveniles than among older fish (Hecht and Pienaar, 1993; Baras, 1998).

Cannibalism is a serious problem in the farming of striped murrel that starts from the early larval stage (Ng and Lim, 1990) and continues at all sizes including during parenting also. Murrels have large mouth gape; sharp jaw teeth for catching & grasping prey and can consume prey fish more than half to two-third of its length (Wee, 1981; Diana et al., 1985; Ng and Lim, 1990 and Qin and Fast, 1996). Its aerodynamic body shape allows fast movement in water and catching the prey with ease. Striped murrel observes two types of cannibalism, Filial and Intracohort, which is discussed in detail in the subsequent sections.

8.1. Introduction

The term canning refers to a process which involves heating food stuff in hermetically sealed containers for a specific time at specific temperature to eliminate microbial pathogens that endanger public health and micro-organisms as well as enzymes that deteriorate food during storage. The canning of fruits and vegetables is canned out in the season when they are available in plenty. The canned products are then sold in the off season for getting better returns and to assure availability of fruits and vegetables throughout the year at reasonable prices.

8.2. History of canning

Important historical developments in canning are as under:

• The credit for invention of canning goes to Nicholas Appert, a French confectioner who was awarded a prize in 1809 by the French government for developing new method of heat preservation of food in sealed container and after whose name the process of canning is known as Appertization.

• In year 1810, Appert published the first book on canning entitled The Art of Preserving Animal and vegetable substances for many years which is the first known work on canning.

• The work of Appert consists of packing food in glass bottles, closing with corks and heating the container in boiling water for several minutes depending upon type of food.

India produces around 33 mt. of fruits and 50 mt. of vegetables annually (Chadha and Bhargava, 1997). It is estimated that 10 to 15 percent of total produce is available as organic waste for recycling in agriculture (Nand et al., 1996). In addition to processing of fruits and vegetables results in production of around 5 mt. of solid wastes (Table 66). Most of these wastes contain organic and plant nutrients (Table 66). There are still large amounts of wastes that are not being completely utilized. In most cases, these wastes are pro-duced from isolated sources and not by large centralized.companies. In practically all cases, horticultural and vegetable products are processed in relatively small canning plants and distributed for use generally in the same geographical area where the produce is grown, this is true world over since fruit and veg-etable wastes cannot be usually transported long distances in view of their bulk, high moisture and low to moderate feeding value relative to conventional feed.

33.1. Aim

To perform canning of fruit and vegetables.

33.2. Theory

Canning refers to a process which involves heating food stuff in hermetically sealed containers for a specific time at specific temperature to eliminate microbial pathogens that endanger public health as well as micro-organisms and enzymes that deteriorate food during storage. Broadly canning is a method of preservation of food for achieving longer shelf-life.

33.3. Principle of canning

Destruction of spoilage causing micro-organisms and enzymes within the sealed containers by means of heat.

The term canning refers to a process that involves heating foodstuff in hermetically sealed containers for a specific time at a specific temperature to eliminate microbial pathogens that endanger public health; and microorganisms and enzymes that deteriorate food during storage.
Principle of canning: Destruction of micro-organisms causing spoilage, within the sealed containers using heat.
Canning Process
Preparation of food commodities for canning consists of selection of commodities, washing, sorting, grading, peeling, halving, blanching, filling into cans, filling hot syrup or brine, exhausting, double seaming, Sterilization/ processing, cooling, storage, etc.
Raw material selection
Fruits should be ripe but firm, evenly matured, and free from blemishes, insect damage, and malformation. Apple, pear, peach, and banana harvested at the mature stage are preferred for canning.

Materials Required

Fruits or vegetables, stainless steel knife, steel pans, Can Body Reformer, Flanger, Double seamer, weighing balance, Refractometer / Salometer, sugar or salt etc. 

Procedure

    1.    Wash the selected fruit or vegetable (as the case may be) 
    2.    Cut into pieces or slices (the size and shape may depend on the fruit/ vegetable but it should not be too large or too small)
    3.    Blanch the material in boiling water for 1-2 min for effective inactivation of enzymes. 
    4.    Prepare the sugar syrup of strength 40o Brix or brine of 1-3 % strength.
    5.    Prepare the can body using a can body reformer and flange the ends in a flanger.
    6.    Seal the base plate using first and second roller operations of the double seamer. 
    7.    Transfer the prepared fruits / vegetables into the cans. 
    8.    Pour in hot syrup or brine into the cans.
    9.    Place the lid over the top of filled can. (follow the first roller operation of the double seamer, if the cans are OTS cans)
    10.    Exhaust the cans in boiling water for about 10 min. to exclude any dissolved air out of the tissues or syrup/brine.
    11.    When the temperature of the centre of can reaches 79-80 ºC for fruits or 82ºC for vegetables, remove the cans from the exhaust box and seal them properly (follow the second roller operation of the double seamer, if the cans are OTS can).
    12.    Process the sealed cans at 100ºC and 115-121ºC for fruits and vegetables respectively for 15-30 min in case of fruits and 25-45 min. in case of vegetables.
    13.    Cool the cans immediately in cold water and air dry them at room temperature.
    14.    Label and store in a cool dry place.

Canning : Process of preservation of various food stuffs including fruits and vegetables whole or in pieces, in sugar syrup or brine by heat processing them in hermetically sealed containers.

Introduction
The term canning refers to a process in which the food is heated in hermetically sealed containers at a specific temperature for a specific time to eliminate microbial pathogens that endanger public health; and microorganisms & enzymes that deteriorate food during storage. The credit for the invention of canning goes to a French confectioner Francois Nicholas Appert, who was awarded a prize in 1809 by the French government for developing a new method of heat preservation of food in a sealed container and after whose name the process of canning has also been named as Appertization. In 1810 Nicholas Appert published the first book on canning entitled “The Art of Preserving Animal and Vegetable Substances for Many Years.” which is the first known work on canning. The work of Appert consists of packing food in glass bottles, closing them with corks, and heating the container in boiling water for several minutes depending upon the type of the food. Although the developed technique was used to preserve different types of food, the actual reason for the prevention of spoilage was known only after the work of Louis Pasteur (1864) who discovered that food spoilage was caused by microorganisms that were destroyed at elevated temperatures and the technique was known as Pasteurization. This understanding helped to form a scientific basis for establishing and revolutionizing the canning industry. Canning of fruits on a commercial scale was introduced in the USA in 1817 by William Underwood. The old phrase ‘necessity is the mother of invention’ suits well for the development of the canning industry during wars. The Civil War in America and the Great European War of 1914 also gave impetus to the development of a canning industry to meet enormous requirements of food for the fighting forces.

Canning is a process of sealing food stuffs hermatically in containers and sterilizing them by heat for long storage is known as canning.

Principle of Canning

Destruction of spoilage organism within the sealed container by means of heat.

Selection of Fruit and Vegetable

For canning fruit should be ripe but firm and uniformity mature and vegetables except tomato should be tender.

Grading

Selected fruit and vegetable are graded according to size and colour to obtain uniform quality. This is done by hand or machines such as screw grader and roller grader.

Canning: Cannings the process by which sealing of the food product and sterilizing them by heat for long storage is known as canning.

The term canning was first invented by N. Appert (1804) in France. In honour of the inventor canning is also known as appertization (Appart is known as the father of canning). The main principle of canning is destruction of spoilage organism by means of heat. The procedure of the canning should be as follows.

Canning: Canning is the process by which sealing of the food product and sterilizing them by heat for long storage is known as canning.

History: The term canning was first invented by N. Appert (1804) in France. In honour of the inventor canning is also known as appertization (Appart is known as the father of canning) and Saddington (1807) in England first described the method of canning. Peter Durand (1810) got first british patent on canning of food in tin container and William under wood introduced canning of fruit on a commercial scale in U.S.A.

Principle of canning: The main principle of canning is destruction of spoilage organism by means of heat.

Introduction

Canopy management is defined as managing plant architectural design as per need, using their inherent characteristics which is in accordance with a given set of conditions and resources to perform the plant maximum (Nath et al, 2014).The modern principles of sustainable fruit production systems focused on optimal use of natural resources (light, water, soil fertility) where the input (labour, energy, fuel, other material) and output (yield) are well balanced and the resources remain renewable.

Fruit orchards can be considered as artificial ecosystems converting the energy of photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) into edible, marketable fruits for human consumption. The core of this system is the bio-factory of leaves driven by the absorbed PAR. Several data support that the light interception is the basic factor for the modern orchard systems. Factors as LAI (Leaf area index), tree spacing, training and pruning systems, fruiting wood development, rootstocks and genotypes also have an important bearing on orchard efficiency.

The main objectives of canopy architecture is to develop strong tree framework, maximize utilization of light, accommodate more number of trees per unit area, maintenance of tree orchard uniformity and induce and sustain proper amount of well distributed fruiting terminals.

In order for the fruit production system to remain sustainable, the orchard system should favour the contributory role of an input of natural origin to the maximum possible extent, in improving the yield in the early years and provide high yields after the trees are mature until the planned age of the orchard. Recent development in the tree architecture has produced some promising tree training and pruning systems as well for high density fruit orchards.

8.1 INTRODUCTION

In developing countries like India, sustainable development of horticulture is a biggest challenge. There is need to formulate strategies for their management through “state of art” technologies for harnessing the naturally available resources in a sustainable manner to meet the ever growing demands of fruits. Canopy architecture has its role in influencing the productivity of fruits. It has been well highlighted by Halle and Olderman, (1970) and Halle et al. (1978). The emerging concerns in the area of canopy architecture and its management are the existence of large number of old senile orchards among the fruits crops and the development of a rejuvenation technology to restructure their canopy and enhance productive and remunerative plant life. Actually, canopy management “designing the plant as per need, using inherent plant characteristics in accordance with given set of conditions and resources to make the plant to perform maximum. As a result of canopy management, the trees acquire their natural shape which very often is not ideal for quality production. A majority of the trees attain tall, upright and curved growth structure and the canopy is marked with criss-cross branches leading to a highly dense vegetative mass with very poor penetration of active solar radiation. Such conditions not only affect the photosynthetic rate but also facilitate proliferation of pests as they prefer shady conditions. Consequently with pressure of pest abundance and poor photosynthetic efficiency over the years in want of due care of tree canopy architecture, the trees turn senile and unproductive and uneconomical.

Existence of such unproductive senile orchards has a telling impact on the socioeconomic as well as livelihood status of the farmers and consumers are equally affected with low poor production and poor quality of produce is the biggest problem with old orchard. Uprooting such orchards and undertaking new plantation may not be a wise option considering the long gestation period of orchard establishment and resulting impact on livelihood of farm families, environment health as well as the investment cost. Mass scale uprooting of trees for replacement of the orchard will also have very adverse impact on production scenario at the regional and national level.

Canopy management is central to achieving balanced vegetative growth, efficient light utilization, flowering, fruiting, and high-quality produce. This chapter explains the principles and objectives of training and pruning in horticultural crops. Different training systems are related to crop architecture, growth habit, planting density, and production objectives. Pruning techniques are discussed for regulating shoot growth, removing undesirable branches, improving air circulation, and maintaining productive canopy structure. Light interception and distribution within the canopy are also examined because photosynthetic efficiency strongly influences yield and fruit quality. Modern high-density orchards require precise canopy management to balance productivity, plant size, mechanization, and long-term orchard sustainability.

Apple (Malus domestica Borkh) is a typical temperate fruit; more than 80% world supply is being made from Europe (Tukey, 1982). It occupies more than 85% area and 60 % production of total temperate fruits. As per 2017-18 statistics it was cultivated over an area of 30,1000 ha with 23,27,000 metric tons production (Anonymous, 2018). Austria is leading in apple productivity; however, China is a largest producer in world.

Bael (Angle marmelos) is an important arid fruits belongs to family Rutaceae and consists 2-3 species of which only one is in cultivation. It is important indigenous fruits of India, drought hardy tree, flowering and fruiting coincides with the onset of monsoon and fruits mature before commencement of summer. The tree shed off entire leaves during hot summer and fruits are exposed to direct sunlight, which favors ripening of fruits.