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The leek is a centuries-old crop native to the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East. The plant is linked to the onion, and its flavour is mild, sweet, and onion-like. Leek stalks are commonly used in European soups and stews, particularly as a side dish with potatoes, and can be cooked whole as a vegetable. It is a non-bulb producing onion family member farmed for blanched stem and leaves. It is eaten fresh or combined into salads, and it is cooked as a flavouring in soups and stews. It is not grown commercially in India, although it is a popular vegetable in a kitchen garden. The climate and soil conditions are the same as for onion.

Botany and taxonomy: The leek is a vegetable that is a cultivar of Allium ampeloprasum, often known as the broadleaf wild leek. 

The major mountain ranges in India are the Himalayas and the Western Ghats. The mountain ecosystem is spread over two Union Territories of India: Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh and eleven states Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Sikkim, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and West Bengal. The hill agriculture has its own unique characteristics and that the growth potential of hill agriculture has remained under-exploited due to various mountain specifities like poor marketing and processing infrastructure, undulating topography, lack of system specific technologies, land degradation, soil erosion, soil acidity and loss of soil fertility. Hill agriculture has several niche areas having comparative advantage for better exploitation of resources and for better trade. Organic farming still remains a viable option for export of specialised commodities especially fruits and vegetables.

In production one or a combination of the following relationship are commonly observed:

1. The law of constant marginal returns (productivity)

 2. The law of increasing marginal returns (productivity)

 3. The law of decreasing marginal returns (productivity)

The science of taxonomy started with Linnaeus, who used two Latin names for an organism by a universally agreed name and identity, and further provided means for their realistic classification. These identifications and classifications got strengthened further with accumulated biological knowledge. In the recent times taxonomy has become more demanding subject for areas in entomology, which are dependent on access to accumulated experience and knowledge for their survival and development. By providing name and classifying an insect, taxonomy provides information on the nature of population, life cycle, habitat and behaviour and thereby developing hypotheses, concepts and theories, which are basic to biological control. In addition, it enables comparison and synthesis, all of which lead to refinement and fine tuning of the concepts and theories for identification.

Goats are important components of livestock industry and play a vital role in the socio-economic structure of the economically-week rural community. Goats have been reared as domestic animals across the world. In India, goat keeping constitutes an important business of small and marginal farmers and the landless due to multifold advantages. These are short generation interval, high rate of prolificacy, easy management and marketing as compared to larger ruminants. Goat milk got the nutritional merit of the animal food products in shape of the animal protein. It is highly nutritious, contains essential vitamins and minerals and is an ideal food for the entire family. Though there are 28 registered goat breeds in India (NBAGR, 2017) constituting 26.4 per cent of the world population and are reared very few are having considerable milk producing animal of the country. Goats are highly efficient in converting food stuff, live vegetation, grasses and leaves forage crops, agro-industrial waste and byproducts and even waste cereals unfit for the human consumption to edible milk. Goat milk possesses 19 amino acids in its protein. It has 11 fatty acids in its butter fat, 6 vitamins, 8 enzymes, 25 minerals, 1 sugar, 5 phosphorus compounds, 14 nitrogenous substances all of which are suspended or dissolved in the fluid milk. Goat milk is as close to perfect food as possible in nature. Its chemical structure is amazingly similar to mother’s milk.

Data analysis plays a pivotal role in social science research, transforming raw
data into meaningful insights. In this study, data collected from the field were meticulously scored, tabulated and analyzed using a variety of statistical tools to meet the specific objectives of the research. These tools not only help in summarizing and interpreting the data but also aid in drawing valid and reliable conclusions. Statistics is the science of assembling, organizing and analyzing numerical data. The following statistical techniques and tools were employed:
Descriptive Statistical Tools
1. Frequency Distribution
Definition: Frequency refers to the number of times a particular value or category occurs in a dataset.
Purpose: It provides an immediate visual representation of how
responses or scores are distributed across various categories.
2. Percentage
Definition: A Percentage expresses a number as a fraction of 100. Formula

Higher Farm Production with Lower Input Cost

There is a great need to reduce the input costs and at the same time improve the farm productivity in a sustainable manner. A model has been worked out based on a number of field demonstration studies in different parts of India, Africa and Far Eastern countries. A model in which input cost can be reduced by nearly 20 percent and at the same time the crop production can be enhanced upto 20 percent is possible and can be a boon to farmers in most parts of the world. This is the model, which can be easily adopted in an evolutionary way. As suggested by Jonathan Foley (BOX – 1), use of high-tech, precision farming systems, as well as approaches borrows from organic farming, we can boost farm productivity substantially.

Collection and preservation of insect specimens is the best way to study their morphology, habitat, distribution, host relationship and many other interesting features. Killing, mounting and arranging the insects in some particular sequence creates much more interest than merely studying museum specimens or looking at pictures. A collection of varied types of insects goes a long way in increasing the knowledge and understanding of the taxonomy of insects.

Not all insects are found in every season and in every place. Their presence mostly depend on the availability of the host, as well as the climatic conditions. Though many insects can be collected in any season, they  are  naturally  abundant  in  moist,  warm  weather,  especially  in the  spring and early summer. To get a good collection, insects have to be collected continuously in all the seasons of the year, from all plants and plant parts, from stored grains and food products. Several types of butterflies, moths, bees, wasps, beetles and flies can be collected from flowers, which they frequent to collect nectar. Many insects can be collected from leaves, stems, fruits, roots and such plant parts. Many insects are found in water and on water plants. Some are found in barks of trees or in decomposing organic matter. These insects have to be collected from different localities where they are found. Most of the insects are diurnal, while some of them are nocturnal. Some are attracted to light. So, a knowledge of the habits of insects is important in making a good collection. Sometimes better specimens may be obtained by collecting the immature stages and rearing them into adults wherever possible. Keeping records of pest collections may help Entomologists to forecast largescale pest occurrence.

The goal of food for all can be achieved only through sustained efforts in producing, saving and sharing food grains.

The Supreme Court of India has rendered great service by arousing public, professional and political concern about the co-existence of rotting grain mountains and mounting hungry mouths. In several African countries hunger is increasing because food is either not available in the market, or is too expensive for the poor. Food inflation is showing no signs of abating. In our country, chronic hunger is largely poverty induced. The progress made in achieving the UN Millennium Development Goal No. 1, namely, reducing hunger and poverty by half by the year 2015, has been far from satisfactory and the available data indicate that we may have years and years to go before we achieve this target. Globally, the number of persons going to bed hungry has increased from 800 million in the year 2000 to over one billion. The position is likely to get worse in the near term, since the prices of wheat, rice and maize are going up in the global market. Adverse growing conditions in Russia, Canada and Australia are partly responsible for the recent escalation in grain prices. Nearer home, Pakistan is recovering from serious floods. According to a recent UN report, 3.2 million ha of standing crops and 200,000 heads of livestock have been lost. 

1. Hallow heart in pea occurs due to

   a) Calcium deficiency

   b) Molybdenum deficiency

   c) Boron deficiency

   d) Zinc deficiency

2. Presence of pathogen on the surface of the seed is termed as

   a) Admixture

   b) Infestation

   c) Infection

   d) Contamination

A number of tools, implements and machineries are used in cultivation of horticultural crops to make every operation easy and efficient. There are a number of operations involved in cultivation of horticultural crops, like making of nursery, propagation of plant material, field ploughing, breaking of clods, levelling, making bunds, sowing and planting, plant protection, training, pruning, harvesting, lawn mowing etc. All these operations are physically taxing and cannot be carried out efficiently without proper tools, implements and machineries. Following are some important tools -

1. Bill hook: To cut and remove big sized unwanted branches of trees.

2. Buckets and plastic pots: used in the orchard for spraying, transport water, carry harvested produce etc.

3. Budding and grafting knife: The budding and grafting operations in propagation of many horticultural plants are carried out using budding and grafting knife.

4. Country plough: Used in field preparation for ploughing the soil, incorporation of organic manures into the soil at the time of last ploughing, summer ploughing in conserving of soil moisture.

5. Crow bar: Used to loosen the soil, digging and deepening the pits and channels.

6. Dibbler: Used to make holes and sow the seeds in the nursery as well as in the main field.

7. Digging fork: It is of a great use in harvesting the tuber crops without damaging the produce.

2.1. Principles

Six basic principles.

2.1.1. Principle of variable proportions or laws of returns

Helps in deciding optimum amount of an input needs to be applied for cultivation of a particular crop or enterprise.

Law of diminishing returns will operate.

The major requirement that distinguishes frozen semen/IVF laboratory from other laboratories is the need to maintain aseptic conditions. The wash up and sterilization of media and other equipments should be located at one end of the room and clean area for sterilize handling at the other end, and preparation, storage and incubation in between. The storage and incubation area should be near to the sterile working area.

In recent years, the introduction of laminar flow cabinets has been a great boon in providing a sterile working area and allows the use of unspecialized laboratory accommodation for culture work. For sterile work, area should be in a quiet part of the laboratory preferably in a cubicle where a laminar flow cabinet is suitably fitted. The area should be free from dust or draughts. Nothing should be stored on the laminar flow cabinet or bench used for sterile handling except most necessary equipments like holding pipettes etc. The laminar flow cabinets provide sterile air blown over the work surface. For laboratory, a horizontal laminar flow is more preferable as opposed to a vertical one because of ease of handling the ovaries etc. If an air curtain is provided at the door of the cabinet, introduction of dust etc. can be avoided. In India laminar flow are manufactured by companies like Clenzoids, Yorco etc, among others. The laminar flow size should be a minimum of 300 X 300 or 450 X 450 mm with a 12-18 in, square filter size).

Lettuce (Lactuca sativa), a member of the sunflower family Asteraceae, is India’s most popular salad vegetable. From a commercial standpoint, it is a tiny crop that is exclusively grown in kitchen gardens. However, because of the rising use of lettuce in continental hotels, the acreage and output of lettuce has expanded, making India the third largest producer. Lactuca indica, also known as Indian lettuce, is a lettuce species native to Asia that is found in Meghalaya and Sikkim and is used for medical purposes. Indian lettuce is a generic term for numerous Asian plants with leaves that vary in form and size. It is also known as the Goose vegetable, Tropical lettuce, Ku mak, Yao mak, Ku Mak Cai, Daun Panjang, and Sawi Rana.

32.1. Aim

To estimate the level of sulphur dioxide contents in fruit and vegetable products

32.2. Theory and principle

Sulphur dioxide in food product is added as class II preservative and may exists as undissociated sulphurous acid, as free bisulphate or sulphite ions or as combined SO2 in the form of hydroxy sulphonates. Sulphur dioxide is measured as free or total SO2. Estimation of SO2 in squashes, jam, RTS drinks is important as its presence beyond the prescribed FSSAI limits make the product not confirming to Indian Food Laws. Generally 2 parts of KMS (Potassium metabisulphite) releases one part of SO2 explained as under:

An accumulation of cerebro Spinal fluid (CSF) within the brains ventricles, leading to the enhancement of intra cranial pressure (ICP). This condition can happen at any age and may result from many underlying causes. Hydrocephalus can be congenital or acquired. Symptoms of Hydrocephalus include headache, nausea, vomiting, Gait disturbances, enlargement of the head in infants. Diagnosis is based on medical history, review, physical examination, Diagnostic tests and imaging studies namely MRI or CT scans. Differential Diagnosis include normal pressure Hydrocephalus, intea cranial hemorrhage and idiopathic intra cranial hypertension. Treatment is dependent upon ventricular shunt and endoscopic third ventriculostomy. Finally it is concluded that Hydrocephalus is a complex neurological condition along with diverse causes as well as presentations.

Introduction

Hydrocephalus, often referred to as “water on the brain,” is a condition manifested by the accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) within the brain’s ventricles, resulting in the enhancement of intracranial pressure (ICP). This condition can happen at any age and may result from various underlying causes. Understanding its history, causes, symptoms, diagnosis, differential diagnosis and treatment is critical for effective management.

Small ruminants (goat and sheep) rearing are considered as natural farming based on two grounds, i.e., (i) their survival on natural resources and are climate resilient, (ii) out of pocket expenses are minimal (Nardone et al., 2004). These animals contributes as livelihood and income augmentation sources for resource poor farmers and immensely contributes by providing milk, meat, f iber, skin, and manure. Goat rearing is done for milk and meat, while sheep is reared mainly for wool and meat purposes and limited use of milk. Goat milk has very high demand globally because of its nutraceutical properties and easy digestibility than bovine milk (Clark et al., 2017), overcome problem of lactose intolerance (Pal et al., 2017), and its nutritionally similarity to human milk (Rai et. al., 2022).

The health benefits of goat milk such as anti-hypertensive, overcome dengue fever, probiotic, antioxidant, antimicrobial properties, and good for gut health are widely recognised by the researchers. The market price of goat milk is almost three times the price of cow milk in different parts of Asia highlighting its income augmentation potential form marginal and small farmers (Liang & Paengkoum, 2019).

Along with raw milk sales, India has an opportunity to expand the processing of goat milk into value-added products which might be highly competent in the international market (Devendra and Liang, 2012). The goat milk products which have export market are: frozen yoghurt, fortified or flavoredmilk, ice cream, butter milk, dried milk or condensed milk product, whey protein concentrate, ghee etc.

The udder is responsible for milk production. It is composed of four mammary glands each with its own teat (Fig. 167). Swelling of udder or teats is an indication of udder disease warranting clinical exploration and palpation. Visual examination the udder (before and after milking) and palpation is of great significance in detecting abnormalities. The udder is visually inspected from back and sides for symmetry and also palpated thoroughly. Palpation is a simple, quick and easy routine diagnostic tool for mastitis detection. Teats and supra mammary lymph nodes should also be palpated. These examinations aid in detecting fibrosis, inflammation or atrophy. Diffuse fibrosis gives the quarter a firm feeling. Areas of local fibrosis may vary in size and shape. Hot, painful and diffuse swelling with marked abnormality of mammary secretion is seen in acute mammary inflammation (acute mastitis). Atrophy of the gland is the terminal stage of chronic mastitis. With the development of gangrene, the area becomes cold and bluish. Five point palpation scores (Petrovski et al., 2011; Hogan et al., 1995; Scaletti and Harmon, 2012)

The President of India, in her address to both Houses of Parliament on 4 June 2009 announced:
 
My Government proposes to enact a new law — the National Food Security Act — that will provide a statutory basis for a framework which assures food security for all. Every family below the poverty line in rural as well as urban areas will be entitled, by law, to 25 kilograms of rice or wheat per month at Rs. 3 per kilogram. This legislation will also be used to bring about broader systemic reform in the public distribution system.

Since then, various arms of government as well as civil society organisations have been working on methods of redeeming this pledge.  The National Advisory Council (NAC) headed by Sonia Gandhi has recently provided a broad framework for achieving the goal of food for all and forever.  The suggestions of NAC include the initiation as soon as possible of special programmes all over the country to insulate from hunger and malnutrition pregnant and nursing mothers, 0-3-years-old infants, street children, destitutes, old and infirm persons, patients suffering from HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and leprosy, physically or mentally handicapped persons and other disadvantaged citizens.

SUMMARY

In the context of increasing population pressure, diminishing per capita land holding, and employment crisis, livelihood security of Indian rural population has become important concern today. The livelihood of the people is dynamic, diverse and complex in nature. The livelihood comprises the people themselves, the assets they posses, the activities they do and the output they gain from their activities. According to the need, availability of the resources and capacity, people used to select their livelihood strategies like agricultural intensification, livelihood diversification or they migrate to the other places to find alternative livelihoods.