eChapters

5.1. Cost concepts

Cost refers to the money value of effort extended or sacrifice made in producing an article or rendering a service or achieving a specific purpose.

Expenses incurred in organizing and carrying out production process.

Includes outlays of funds for inputs and services.

Total costs: Money value of all inputs used in the production process.

Cucumis melo var. conomon or Oriental pickled melon is a veining annual vegetable native to China and India. In the summer, it produces yellow blooms, and in the fall, it harvests the fruit. The petals are crumpled because it belongs to the Cucumis genus.

Botany and taxonomy: The fruit’s outer surface is glossy and can be white or green, but it’s known as shiro-uri because when fully ripe, it turns white and is whiter than a cucumber. It’s a melon variety, but it’s used in cooking since it has a lighter sweetness and flavour, as well as a crisp texture when chewed. It contains vitamin C, vitamin B1, and carotene, however the majority of its constituents are water and low in calories.

Water is one of the most vital components for the successful growth and development of crops. It influences most of the plant metabolic activities, namely photosynthesis, respiration, absorption, translocation utilization of mineral nutrients, etc. Its stress or in excess affects the growth and development of a plant directly and consequently its yield and quality.

Role of water: Water plays an important role in plant growth and development in many ways.

• It is the chief constituent of protoplasm.
• It provides aqueous medium for various biochemical (metabolic) reactions.
• It serves as a temperature stabilizer and helps in maintaining a stable metabolic rate.
• It is an essential input for photosynthesis.
• It helps to maintain turgidity of cells and plant organs.
• It is an excellent solvent for various organic materials of cells.

Q1. Which of the following is semisynthetic product:

1. Chlortetracycline
2. Chloramphenicol
3. Tetracycline
4. Oxytetracycline

Q2. Natural source of amphotericin B is:

1. Streptomyces aureofaciencs
2. Streptomyces nodosus
3. Streptomyces erythreus
4. Streptomyces venezuelse

Q3. Following is /are mitotic inhibitor

1. Paclitaxel
2. Griseofulvin
3. Vinblastine
4. All of the above

Scientific name: Piper betle L.
Family: Piperaceae
The betel vine, scientifically known as Piper betle L., is a perennial climber native to Southeast Asia, including India. It belongs to the Piperaceae family. The betel vine has been an integral part of Indian culture, tradition, and medicine for thousands of years.
In Hinduism, the betel vine is considered a sacred plant, often offered to gods and goddesses. The leaves are used in various rituals, including weddings and pujas (prayer ceremonies). In Indian tradition, betel leaves are also offered as a mark of respect and hospitality to guests.
Betel leaves have been used in Ayurvedic medicine for their numerous health benefits. They are rich in antioxidants, anti-inflammatory compounds, and essential oils. The leaves are used to treat various ailments, including digestive issues, respiratory problems, skin conditions, and oral health issues.
In addition to their medicinal properties, betel leaves are also used as a mouth and breathe freshener. The leaves are chewed with betel nuts (areca nuts) and lime, a practice known as "paan" in India. The betel vine is a versatile plant with significant cultural, medicinal, and economic importance in India and other parts of Southeast Asia.

Abstract

On average 13 million hectares of the world’s forests disappear every year due to different reasons. Among them forest diseases is one of the prominent factor. Seeds of soft wood and hardwood trees are attacked by fungi and other microbes.  Seed-borne pathogens of wood trees affect nursery seedlings and reduce seed germination and seedling vigor. The micro-organisms that are mostly associated with tree seeds are fungi, bacteria and to a lesser extent viruses. There are many mechanisms by which tree seeds acquire pathogens. Indeed, both the occurrence and severity of many seed-borne fungi, is often traced to the mishandling of fruits, cones or seeds. The majority of pathogens associated with forest tree seeds are fungi, producing only or predominantly the asexual (anamorph) stage (Deuteromycetes).

If you have prepared yourself to make research as your career, it is most advantageous to read research papers/reviews/chapters/books published by the eminent scientists. It is not necessary to confine reading to your subject but a voracious reading will enable you to develop an idea about general problems related to science and our society; how scientists managed to solve them and with development of new knowledge, how you may tackle fresh or existing problems. A deep analysis may be done of those works which are so accurate that even after lapse of so many years, they still hold true. In our opinion, it is better to launch websites/blogs highlighting important works of eminent Parasitologists for the benefit of our research scholars; a beginning, in India in Parasitology, has been made in this direction with launch of a website on first time Rafi Ahmed Kidwai award winner (in Animal Sciences) late Dr SC Dutt (www.drscdutt.com). 

We let you know that the type of people in a given region is closely linked to the kind of resources found in the concerned region; and which are necessary for human beings to survive.

In fact, more than 100 countries possess arid lands, where more than 40% of the global population lives. The soils of these regions present too much fragility and they are too degraded that they can’t allow people to survive.

Let’s emphasize that in Africa, two third of the total area are arid zones. Thus, for Africans, the type of their struggle for adaptation to the context of their land, illustrates their ingenious capacity to model their hostile surroundings and to leave marks of their cultures all over prehistory and history.

Social organizations in those arid areas are closely linked to modes of exploitation and valuation of resources (water and land). However, human productions in those areas are doubly menaced; on one side by the action of humans who exploit resources for their immediate needs, and on the other side, by climate adverse effects during long periods of drought. It means that climate change and violent meteorological phenomenon worsen circumstances. That leads to environmental degradation and biodiversity reduction; alarming deterioration of vital conditions; and intensification of poverty, both in rural and urban areas; particularly among women and young. Consequently, there are non durable (viable) agricultural practices, overexploitation, overgrazing, excessive and illegal forestry exploitation; destruction of forests and bushes by non-controlled fires, pillages and conflicts with weapons; reduction of vegetation, due to the scarcity of rain; of water in general and menaces of heaps of sands.

Parsley is a popular culinary herb that is grown commercially as an annual plant for its attractive and aromatic leaves in many parts of the world. In Europe, parsley is the most generally farmed herb, and in the United States, it is the most commonly utilised herb. Rather than being a part of the diet, it is utilised as a garnish. The leaves’ oil can also be used to make sauces and spices.

Botany and taxonomy: Parsley is a biennial that is cultivated and managed as if it were an annual. It’s the most popular herb for garnishing and flavouring. Parsley comes in two varieties: moss-curled and flat-leaf. Moss-curled produces a rosette of finely cut and tightly curled leaves. It develops as a biennial, with a rosette of tripinnate leaves 10-25 cm (4-10 in) tall, numerous 1-3 cm (0.4-1.2 in) leaflets, and a taproot that serves as a winter food store. It develops a blooming stem with sparser leaves and umbels of yellow to yellowish-green flowers in the second year. 

Adipiso genital syndrome is otherwise known as Adiposo genital dystrophy or Frolichs syndrome. It occurs because if disorder of Hypothalamus. It is manifested by a union of obesity, under developed genitals and hormonal imbalances. It essentially influences hidden and adolescents, even though cases in adults have been reported. The causes of adipose genital syndrome include tumors, trauma and I infections The symptoms of adipose genital dystrophy are obesity, delayed or incomplete puberty, under developed or incomplete puberty. Under developed genitals and hormonal imbalances. Diagnosis is based on medical history, physical examination , laboratory tests and imaging studies namely ( MRI ) of the brain. Treatment is dependent upon hormone replacement therapy, diet as well as life style modifications and monitoring as well as supportive care. Finally it is concluded that Adiposo genital syndrome is a rare disease manifested by obesity. Under developed genitals and hormonal imbalances, leading to the dysfunction of the Hypothalamus.

Brucella species are small (0.6 x 0.6 to 1.5 pm), nonmotile, coccobacillary, Gram-negative bacteria. As they are not decolourized by 0.5% acetic acid in the modified Ziehl-Neelsen (MZN) staining technique, they are classed as MZN-positive. In MZN-stained smears of body fluids or tissues, they characteristically appear as clusters of red coccobacilli. For taxonomic purposes, all Brucella species should be classified as Brucella melitensis as DNA hybridization studies have shown that the genus contains only one species.
Brucella species are aerobic, capnophilic and catalase-positive. Apart from B.ovis and B.neotomae, they are oxidase-positive. All Brucella species are urease-positive except B.ovis. Brucella ovis and some biotypes of B.abortus require 5 to 10% CO2 for primary isolation. Moreover, the growth of other Brucella species is enhanced in an atmosphere of CO2. Media enriched with blood or serum is required for culturing B.abortus biotype 2 and B.ovis. Recently, brucellae have been detected in sea-mammals. Smears are made from specimens and stained by the modified Ziehl- Neelsen (MZN) stain. Brucellae appear as small, red-staining coccobacilli in clumps because of their intracellular growth.
Isolation
The brucellae grow well on 5-10 per cent blood agar. However, other than foetal abomasal contents and colostrum, the specimens are likely to contain many contaminating bacteria and fungi, so selective media are usually required. The selective media contain a nutritive blood agar base with 5 per cent sterile seronegative equine or bovine serum and an antibiotic supplement. The antibiotic
supplement used in selective media for B.ovis usually differs from that for B. abortus. Skirrow agar is a satisfactorymedium for both the Campylobacter fetus subspecies and for brucellae, including the most fastidious species such as B. abortus biotype 2, B.canis and B.ovis.

This chapter introduces the concept, importance and prospects of protected floriculture in India. It explains how greenhouses and other protected structures help overcome limitations associated with temperature, photoperiod, humidity, carbon dioxide, nutrients and wind. The chapter examines the global and Indian development of protected cultivation, its role in year-round production, resource optimization, quality improvement and higher productivity. It also discusses present challenges, technological developments, automation, soilless cultivation, smart greenhouses and future opportunities for climate-resilient and sustainable flower production

One prime fact in research is not to take the matter for granted and do not believe in status quo. This is most critical mindset for creating something new. Even change may be made in existing circumstances with minimum requirements. Here, I may cite my experience while starting research in 1976 for my doctorate program on immunity against schistosomiasis. The experimental model was albino mouse where schistosomes, by their nature, develop into blood vascular system of the host hence require a special technique called “Perfusion technique” for retrieval of mature and immature schistosomes. This ‘perfusion technique’ requires use of a “Peristaltic pump” and was followed in some western countries (2). However, No body in India followed this perfusion technique hence recovered schistosomes from mouse or from any other host species by teasing the blood vessels or/and cutting and soaking liver,spleen, kidney, lung pieces in normal saline.

The coral reef ecosystem is one of the most diverse ecosystems, which is housing for an amazing diversity of organisms and estimation of species richness ranges from 650 000 to over 9 million. For this reason, coral reefs often are referred to as the “rainforests of the ocean”1.Prokaryotes represent overriding life form on the planet and are almost certainly the most diverse component of coral reef communities2. Corals have been known to harbour many different species of bacteria.

The rise in the number of drug-resistant pathogens and the limited success of strategies in providing new agents indicate an uncertain forecast for future antimicrobial therapy. So it is critical that new groups of microbes from unexplored habitats be pursued as sources of novel antibiotics. Marine actinomycetes serve as a logical target given the historical significance of their terrestrial counterparts in antibiotic production. Isolation strategies directed towards new marine-derived actinomycetes have been lacking, but it is clear that such procedures will increase the understanding of marine bacterial diversity and yield many novel marine natural products. Though recent literatures report the isolation of novel class of actinomycetes from marine sediments and sponges, reports on actinomycetes associated with corals are very scanty. Therefore in this study we attempted to characterize the actiomycetes diversity associated with the coral Acropora digitifera from the Gulf of Mannar, Southern coast of India. The antibacterial potential of the isolated actinomycetes was also investigated.

All across the world, the dairy industry is facing numerous problems and changes. Dairy development has received a considerable boost from factors including access to technical advancements, improvements in infrastructural facilities, and the development of modern marketing insights. It is interesting to see how the dairy sector is changing globally.

In the 14th century, the term “parsnip” was borrowed into Middle English as a modification of the Old French word “pasnaie,” which was derived from the Latin noun “pastinaca,” which meant “parsnip” or “carrot.” This history is still reflected in the scientific name for the parsnip, “Pastinaca sativa.” The parsnip is a native of Eurasia; it has been farmed by the Romans and has been used as a vegetable since antiquity, but there is some misunderstanding between parsnips and carrots in historical texts. Prior to the arrival of cane sugar in Europe, it was employed as a sweetener. Parsnips are carrot-shaped root vegetables that are cream-colored and belong to the parsley family. Although they can be eaten fresh, they are more commonly roasted, boiled, fried, or steamed. The thin, tan peel of parsnips is usually peeled before use, revealing white flesh beneath.

Objective

Vegetable seed separation requires specialized training. A little carelessness during the seed extraction process can seriously harm the plant’s viability and vigor in addition to its outward look. Inadequate extraction methods can also result in in-situ germination. The seed can be separated by the following methods.

1. Manual Method

(a) Maceration e.g., watermelon,

(b) Crushing e.g., brinjal,

(c) Scraping e.g., cucumber

(d) Separated e.g., muskmelon,

(e) Scooping e.g., pumpkins and

(f) Extraction e.g., squashes.

In India, agriculture is the primary occupation and source of income for the vast majority of the population. More than 58% of the population depends on agriculture for their living. Indian agriculture has been expanding for a long time with the help of related industries like sheep, goat, cow, chicken, and egg production. The world’s largest livestock population resides in India. For rural residents, the livestock industry is one of the most significant sources of revenue and employment. Agriculture and livestock are highly interdependent, with agriculture providing crop waste, a primary source of feed for livestock, while livestock provide manure and draught power to agriculture. The fact is that agricultural production and livestock raising work together to fully utilise a farm. In terms of giving families in rural and urban regions nourishing food, livestock is also crucial.

Because it is so straightforward, raising sheep and goats is more popular among landless, small, and marginal farmers who rely on common grazing and forest lands for food. Some of the factors responsible for the concentration of sheep and goat rearing among these categories include low capital intensity, prolific breeding, superior chevon/mutton quality, early sexual maturity, high-quality skin, low kidding intervals, good adaptability, no religious taboo against consumption, and steady returns.

Scientific name: Cinchona spp.
Family: Rubiaceae
Cinchona, a genus of flowering plants, comprises approximately 65 species. Several species, including Cinchona succirubra, C. officinalis, and C. ledgeriana, are cultivated for their bark, which contains quinine and other antimalarial compounds.
Origin and distribution
Native to the highlands of South America, Cinchona was introduced to India's Nilgiris in 1859. It is currently cultivated in the Anamalai and Nilgiris hills of Tamil Nadu, as well as in Darjeeling, West Bengal.
Botany
Cinchona is a majestic evergreen plant that can grow to varying heights, ranging from 5 to 15 meters. Its trunk is covered with a smooth, greyish-brown bark that peels off in thin layers. The branches are slender, pubescent, and arranged in a whorled pattern. The leaves of the Cinchona plant are simple, oppositely arranged, and decussate. They are elliptical or lanceolate in shape, with a pointed apex and a rounded base. The leaves are 10-20 cm long, 2-5 cm wide, and have a leathery texture. The upper surface is dark green, glossy, and glabrous, while the lower surface is pale green, pubescent, and has prominent midribs.