eChapters

Physical and chemical techniques have been applied either alone or in combination with certain cultural practices to enhance the effectiveness of reducing pathogen inoculums and consequent reduction in disease incidence. Seeds and asexually propagated planting materials have been treated with physical and / or chemical methods in order to eliminate the pathogens from them and to build up disease-free stocks. Physical and chemical methods may be applied to reduce the inoculum present in plant debris as well as in the soil and water. Enough attention has not been bestowed to tackle the pathogens that may exist on fallen leaves or shoots from which infectible spores may be produced later.

Table 19.1: Reference Guide for Landscape Plants.

8.1. Introduction

Sometimes writing reference list could be so confusing since there are a lot of different rules. Each universities or even each faculty use different rule in writing reference list. The different rule of writing reference list is normal because they refer to different style guide. There are a lot of styles guide available. MLA (Modern Language Association of America) style; the Chicago Manual of Style; the Oxford Guide to Style are some examples of style guide. Difference reference of style guides chosen will result in totally different way of writing reference list. The most widely accepted style guides in social science is the APA (American Psychological Association) style. In some higher education journals (e.g. Journal of Studies in International Education, Higher Education) it is stated clearly that author must submit their paper according to APA style. Referencing in a general sense means to give credit to someone for using his or her own ideas or thoughts in a research activity. Referencing helps in gaining the originality of the ideas and thoughts used in the research activity. Failure to reference is treated as disrespect to the original author or writer and seen as a major misconduct in the area of academic research writing. Generally students made the mistake of not mentioning proper referencing at the end of their research projects, essays or any other piece of work. This may lead to cancellation of the written matter. If we do not reference properly the written matter is treated as if it is copied from somewhere. The research paper or material cannot be submitted for further research or reading purpose. We find a lot of data when we search for something.

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expression of heat shock proteins HSP70 and HSP90 in mammary gland neoplasms in

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(2017). Circulating cell-free DNA in dogs with mammary tumors: short and long fragments

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Bennett, R.H. and Jasper, D.E. 1977. Bovine mycoplasma mastitis from intramammary inoculation of small numbers of Mycoplasma bovis. I. Microbiology and pathology. Vet. Microbiol., 2(4): 341–355.

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Buchanan, A. G. 1982. Clinical laboratory evaluation of a reverse CAMP test for presumptive identification of Clostridium perfringens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 14:761–762.

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Chareonsirisuthigul, T., Kirpal, G., Amtsberg, G. 1979. Biochemistry, serology, pathogenicity and antibiotic resistance of an Escherichia coli strain from healthy sows and from animals with mastitismetritis-agalactia syndrome. Berl. Munch Tierarztl. Wochenschr. 92(21):409-16.

Christie, N. E., Atkins, N. E. and Munch-Petersen, E. 1944. A note on a lytic phenomenon shown by group B Streptococcus. Aust. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sci. 22:193–195.

Claxton, P.D. and Ryan, D. 1980. Bovine mastitis bacteriology. Australian Standard Diagnostic Techniques for Animal Diseases. Pp. 1-8

Daley, M. J., Oldham, E. R., Williams, T. J. and Coyle, P. A. 1991. Quantitative and qualitative properties of host polymorphonuclear cells during experimentally induced Staphylococcus aureus mastitis in cows. Am. J. Vet. Res., 52(3): 474-9.

Darling, J. F. 1975. Standardization and evaluation of CAMP reaction for the prompt, presumptive identification of Streptococcus agalactiae (Lancefield group B) in clinical material. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1:171–174.

De, U. K. and Mukherjee, R. 2005.Status of nitric oxide production by polymorphonuclear cells during clinical mastitis in lactating cows. Indian J. Comp. Microbiol. Immunol. Infec. Dis., 26(1): 61-62.

De, U. K. and Mukherjee, R. 2008. Anti-inflammatory and respiratory burst activity of Azadirachta indica during acute bovine mastitis Indian J. Anim. Sci., 79(2): 32-34.

De, U. K. and Mukherjee, R. 2009. Expression of cytokines and respiratory burst activity of milk cells in response to Azadirachta indica during bovine mastitis. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 41(2): 189-197.

De, U. K. and Mukherjee, R. 2009. Inhibitory response of Azadirachta indica extract on nitric oxide production by milk leukocytes during clinical mastitis. Vet. Arhiv, 79(1), 41-50.

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De, U. K. and Mukherjee, R. 2011. Potential of Indigenous Enzymatic Activities, Nitric Oxide and Ceruloplasmin in Bovine Milk to Diagnose Subclinical Mastitis. J Veterinar Sci Technol 2:109. doi:10.4172/2157-7579.1000109

ABSTRACT

Pests and diseases cause serious economic losses in yield and quality of many cultivated crops. Detection and assessment of their damage symptoms is very crucial to initiate timely control interventions. The conventional scouting technique adopted for assessment of pest and disease in field crops is very laborious and time consuming. Remote sensing may provide a better means to objectively quantify disease stress than visual methods and it can be used to repeatedly collect sample measurements non-destructively and non-invasively. In this paper we report the changes in the reflectance spectra due to pest and disease incidence in three crops viz., groundnut, castor and rice. Canopy reflectance measurements were made with a hand held multispectral radiometer (MSR 16-R, CropScan Inc) which records incoming radiation and light reflectance with up looking and down looking sensors, respectively in 16 pass bands. Data of percent reflectance at each pass band were processed subsequently using the calibration and correlation constants through a mini computer connected to the sensor. A total of 10 samples were selected for each level of pest/disease. At each sampling, six measurements were recorded and the resulting data were averaged. The reflectance spectra varied for different biotic stresses in the three test crops. Higher absorption in the NIR region between 760-1240 nm was observed for healthy plants compared to the diseased plants in all the three crops tested. The spectral signatures from severely defoliated (by semilooper pest) castor crop showed that the percent reflectance in the visible region between 560-710 nm was higher in the defoliated crop compared to healthy and reverse is true in the NIR region between 810-1100 nm. In case of rice, spectral reflectance in the region between 760-1100 nm could differentiate the healthy and brown plant hopper affected plants. Decrease in reflectance in this region was proportion to the number of hoppers per plant. This could be due to collapse of leaf tissues by hopper damage. The higher reflectance in the visible region (560-710 nm) was observed only when the damage is very severe (hopper burn). Different spectral indices viz., SR (simple ratio), NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index), NPCI (normalized total pigment to chlorophyll index), DWSI (disease water stress index) and WBI (water band index) were compared to distinguish healthy and diseased plants. NDVI was found useful in distinguishing semilooper damaged (defoliated) castor crop from healthy castor. All the indices tested were useful to differentiate the rice plants damaged by sap-sucking pest, BPH at different levels of infestation. Incase of groundnut, the differences in the spectral indices between different disease incidence levels were not significant. Results of the present study demonstrated that by comparing the reflectance spectra generated using ground based high-resolution radiometer, it is possible to distinguish healthy and pest/disease affected crops.

Abstract

Coral reefs, the marine representatives of tropical forests, coupled with the sea grasses contribute considerably to the coastal productivity. Damages to these ecosystems will immediately affect the fishery productivity of the region. Due to this, the long-term ecological impact of the recent tsunami will be a serious set back to the local, national and regional economy than the immediate losses. Andaman and Nicobar reefs represent the second largest coral reef formation next to the Great Barrier Reef and are also comparable to the coral reefs of Indonesia and Philippines in terms of diversity of species and associated floral and faunal components. The recent mega – subduction of the Indian plate below the Burmese micro – plate in Andaman – Sumatra region has not only deepened the southern and uplifted the northern group of Andaman – Nicobar islands but also created a disastrous tsunami on Dec 26, 2004. While such tectonic changes are expected to cause longterm changes in the coral reefs of Andaman, Nicobar group of islands, the tsunami has damaged the coral reefs instantaneously. However, the coral reefs of the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay are not much affected by the tsunami by virtue of their geographic position in the shadow region of Sri Lanka.

Keywords: Indian coral reefs, Tsunami effect, Coral recovery

Abstract

The mangrove wetlands form dynamic ecotones between land and sea. Mangrove wetlands are unique in terms of environment, plant and animal communities and their distribution is restricted in tropical and subtropical coastlines. They perform a number of protective and productive functions, which ensures ecological and livelihood security to the coastal communities. The role of mangroves in mitigating the impact of cyclones and storm surges is well known but only limited information is available on their role in reducing the impact of tsunami. The Pichavaram mangroves, located on the southeast coast of India in Tamil Nadu, which was hit by the 26 December 2004 tsunami, provided opportunities to understand the contribution of it in tsunami mitigation. Through a systematic field study, a comparative analysis was made on the impact of tsunami in a set of villages, one was protected by mangroves and the other lacks any vegetation surrounding it. These villages are located at more or less equal distance from the sea and situated at about same elevation. Assessment carried out with well defined indicators such as loss of lives due to forceful entry of tsunami water, damages to houses and types of houses, etc., shows that loss of lives and damage to houses were much less in the village surrounded by Pichavaram mangroves. Thus, Pichavaram mangrove wetland, which was restored with the participation of the local community, Tamil Nadu Forest Department and M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) during 1993-2004 provided great dividend during tsunami. This underlines the importance of strengthening the ecological foundation of the coastal zone with mangroves and other vegetation as one of the strategies for mitigating the impact of natural disasters in the coastal areas.

Keywords: Mangroves, Natural Disasters, Tsunami, Impact Reduction and Pichavaram.

Introduction

The history and evolution of extension in India during the Pre- independence and Post- independence periods have been narrated in Chapter 2. The major breakthrough in Agricultural Extension was the introduction of the T&V system with WB support from 1977 to 1997. The system tried to establish a strong linkage between the research and extension. Technical messages received from research stations were transferred to the farmers through an organized extension system at fixed time intervals and obtained feedback from the farmers about the technologies. However, the system was constrained by structural problems at organizational level. The system adopted a classical top- down approach and the recommendations were suitable for irrigated areas bypassing the rain- fed areas. After the withdrawal of support from WB, the T&V system was constrained by the paucity of funds to manage the manpower created, and the unpaid farmers did not continue to work. After withdrawal, it was considered necessary to make the extension more demand- driven, participatory, group extension, and farmer- centric with possible convergence for which extension reform in India was necessary.

Extension reform in India

There are many countries where extension and advisory services reforms are occurring globally (Swanson and Rajalahti 2010; World Bank 2012). Since agro- ecological conditions and access to markets vary within most countries, decentralized extension system was needed. It was considered that decentralized and demand- driven extension allows farmers to participate in setting the agenda and demanding extension and research priorities. The extension reforms made the system reach the smallholders, resource- poor, and women, and also focused on sustainability. When the donor funds dry up or the pilot projects end, the farmers no longer have access to the extension services (Birner and Anderson 2007). Therefore the public extension needs to be sustainable in extension services delivery.

Introduction

The National Commission on Agriculture defined agricultural marketing as a process which starts with a decision to produce a saleable farm commodity and it involves all aspects of market structure of system, both functional and institutional, based on technical and economic considerations and includes pre and post- harvest operations, assembling, grading, storage, transportation and distribution. The Indian council of Agricultural Research defined involvement of three important functions, namely (a) assembling (concentration) (b) preparation for consumption (processing) and (c) distribution.

Abstract

Refractance Window (RW) drying is a relatively new drying technology. This method is carried out by spreading a thin film of food slurry on a conveyor belt made up of a transparent polyester material. The slurry is thermally heated as it moves along the conveyor belt, resulting in rapid drying of the product. RW drying is similar to Drum Drying, but conducted at lower temperatures (95–97^ºC) and without direct contact with the heat source. RW drying offers low operating costs with excellent retention of color, flavor and nutrients.

A refrigerant is heat transfer medium through which phase change occurs from liquid to vapour i.e. evaporation at low temperature and pressure in the evaporator and then the phase change occurs from gas to liquid i.e. condensation at high pressure and high temperature in the condenser. The cycle of phase change of refrigerant, continues in the refrigeration system.

Refrigeration mean cooling i.e. lower the temperature by artificial means. It is a process of attaining lower temperature of the space or product below the surrounding temperature. It further involves maintaining the lower temperature achieved.

1. The process of removing heat from a substances under controlled condition known as refrigeration.

2. A refrigerator is a revised heat engine.

3. Whenever a force acts on body and the body undergoes a displacement is known as work.

4. The rate of doing work-power.

5. Unit of work kgf, Nm, joule.

6. 1 HP-736 watts.

7. Energy defined as the capacity to do work.

8. 1 bar- 105N / (m ^ 2)

9. Absolute pressure gauge pressure + atmosphere pressure.

10. The degree of hotness or coolness is known as temperature.

11. The level of intensity of the body - heat.

It is well known that lowering the temperature of food stuffs reduces microbiological and biochemical spoilage and thus extending the shelf life of the product. In addition, it is generally agreed upon that the reaction rate is reduced by half by lowering the temperature by 10°C. Though low temperature preservation process has been recognized as a preservation technique for several hundred years, the major developments in its utilization have occurred only in the last century.

Q. 1 Unit of refrigeration is:-
(A) Quintal    (B) Gram
(C) kg            (D) Ton

1. Introduction

Refrigeration may be defined as the process of achieving and maintaining a temperature below that of the surroundings. The aim being to cool some product or space to the required temperature. Refrigerated system or a room system is maintained at a temperature which is lower than the atmospheric temperature. Due to higher temperature of atmosphere, heat enters the system. To keep the temperature of the system constant, heat must be removed continuously from the system. Heat removed must be equal to the heat transferred to the system. One of the most important applications of refrigeration has been the preservation of perishable food products by storing them at low temperatures. Refrigeration systems are also used extensively for providing thermal comfort to human beings by means of air conditioning.

The refrigerator (called a ‘fridge’ by most people) is a box like equipment which uses electricity to keep the temperature inside the box lower than the atmosphere outside. Food kept at such a low temperature thus does not spoil for a long time. The refrigerator also serves the purpose of giving us cold water and ice in summer. By preserving food in the refrigerator, one can delay the growth of bacteria, keep food items fresh and thus save time and energy of the homemaker in meal preparation.

Agriculture is increasingly being looked through the angle of environment and sustainability now. On global scale, the move is towards a balanced need for food production and ecological factors. Green revolution made a huge contribution for food security but now we face the following challenges.
1. Since the green revolution, land has witnessed an indiscriminate and prolonged use of chemicals and the strong need for moving away to more eco-friendly farming is felt.
2. We need to promote eco technologies which integrate the principles of ecology in technology development and dissemination. We also need to promote production and use of biological software for sustainable agriculture and food security.
Therefore, the terms like Regenerative Agriculture, Nature base solutions, Agro Ecology, Eco Agriculture, Conservation Agriculture, Organic Farming, Holistic Resource Management, Climate Smart Agriculture, Prakrutik Kheti etc etc have been gaining prominence in policy and funding spaces related to food systems. Global policy floors like the UN Food Systems Summit and the UN Climate and biodiversity conferences have used these terms as bywords for Sustainable Development. Different Names – Eco Agriculture Revolution Encompasses all ! Regenerative Agriculture is defined by many in ways that closely resemble Agro Ecology / Eco Agriculture. Broadly it describes farming, ranching and pastoral practices that stabilize our planet’s climate and carbon cycles by rehabilitating organic matter and microbial activity in the soil, thereby increasing carbon storage, retaining moisture and safeguarding bio diversity and living systems.