eChapters

In fruits, vegetables, and their products, the sugars are estimated as reducing sugars, non-reducing sugars, and total sugars. Reducing sugars in fruits and their products represent glucose and fructose. A combination of reducing and non-reducing sugars gives total sugars, whereas non-reducing sugars mainly sucrose are calculated after deducting the value of reducing sugars from the total sugars as invert sugar and multiplying the remainder with a factor of 0.95. Many fruit, vegetables, and their products like jam, jelly, juice, preserve, candy, fruit toffees, etc., containing substantial amounts of sugars, are estimated as a routine by using Lane and Eynon’s method using Fehling’s solution. However, for products having a smaller quantity of sugars, more precise methods like colorimetric methods can be used.
Method: Lane and Eynon’s Method
Principle: Invert sugar reduces the copper in Fehling’s solution to red, insoluble cuprous oxide. The sugar content in a food sample is estimated by determining the volume of the unknown sugar solution required to completely reduce a known volume of Fehling’s solution. Glucose, fructose and other] sugars capable of reducing oxidizing agents are called reducing sugars and this property is used for the estimation of sugars.

This chapter introduces protected structures as controlled environments designed to modify the microclimate for optimum crop growth. It explains different greenhouse and polyhouse types based on structure, covering material, ventilation and environmental control. Glasshouses, polyhouses, low tunnels and other structures are discussed along with their construction characteristics, advantages and applications. The chapter provides a foundation for selecting appropriate protected structures according to crop requirements, climate, production objectives and available resources.

Explant

The tissue obtained from plant to be cultured is known as Explant. It may include the parts of shoots, leaves, stems, roots, flowers and callus.

Maintenance of Aseptic Environment

All culture vessels, media and instruments used in handling tissues as well as the explants must be sterilized. The importance is to keep the air surface and floor free of dust. All operations are carried out in laminar air-flow, a sterile cabinet.In general, the methods of elimination of these sources of infection can be grouped under different categories of sterilization procedures: 

The mites belong to the Class - ‘Arachnida’, Order - ‘Acarina’. Most of the phytopathogenic mites are classified under the two Families - Tetranychidae and Eriophyidae.

The mites belonging to the Family - Tetranychidae are generally known as Tetranychids. They are very minute, and less than 100 microns in size. The body is non-segmented and the head, thorax and abdomen are  not distinct, but rather fused together. The life cycle of a tetranychid mite consists of an egg stage, three nymphal stages viz., protonymph, deutonymph and tritonymph and an adult stage. In the protonymphal stage, which is also called the larval stage, the mites have only 3 pairs of legs. In all the other nymphal stages and the adult stage they have 4 pairs of legs. The mites are roundish or oval in shape, with biting and chewing, as well as piercing and sucking type of mouthparts (Fig.190).

Semen evaluation alone should not be interpreted as the sole indicator of the fertility of bulls but it will provide significant information of the sexual apparatus. After receipt of the semen sample in the laboratory, it is kept in a hot water bath at 350C until the evaluation is complete. One has to prevent cold shock to the living sperm cells during the evaluation process. All the glassware and other items coming directly or indirectly in contact with the sperm cells should be sterilized properly and kept ready in a thermostatically controlled cabinet at body temperature. Sudden changes in exposure of semen to cold or hot temperature results in higher dead spermatozoa or sperm agglutination. Semen should not be exposed to sunlight, wind, chemicals, smoke, vibration and water. A single laboratory test is not sufficient to assess the semen quality and semen should be examined within a shortest possible time after ejaculation as mentioned below (Table 9.1).

The pointed gourd (Trichosanthes dioica Roxb, Cucurbitaceae) is an Indian tropical vegetable crop. It’s called as parwal, palwal, or parmal in different parts of India and Bangladesh, and it’s one of the region’s most significant vegetables. Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and some hilly portions of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu are among the states where the crop is commonly farmed. The entire cultivated area is 56 million hectares, while the total production is 798 million hectares (2018-19). Due to its well-established dioecism, perennial nature, and vegetative modes of multiplication, the pointed gourd is physically unique from other cucurbitaceous species.

23.1 Introduction

The following Frank Kright, the knowledge situation can be classified into the following logical possibilities:

23.2 Perfect Knowledge

There would be no need for farm management experts if knowledge was perfect. If there were so technology, prices and institutional behaviour would be known with certainty for any period of time in the nature. But the concept of perfect knowledge is a fallacious one and does not represent the real world situation.

Introduction

Animal husbandry and poultry rearing, in addition to offering economic participation, play an important role in securing household food security. The core notion of food security argues that everyone should have physical and economic access to the basic nutrition they require. ‘Food security is a scenario that exists when all people have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, secure, and nutritious food that fits their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life’, according to the FAO (2002). Consequently, two requirements must be met in order to ensure food security: the first is the availability of food, and the second is the ability to purchase it. There is a propensity to define food security at the national level without examining its condition at the grass roots level with major emphasis at the household or individual level. This is because, while national food security may appear to be adequate, disparities in food security may exist among regions, groups, households, and people.

Increased crop output can increase people’s calorific intake, but protein is also essential for health, and pulses and coarse grains are essential. According to the Directorate of Economics and Statistics, DAC & FW, total pulse output in the nation was roughly 25.42 million tonnes in 2017-18, and over 23.40 million tonnes in the following fiscal year (2018-19). This demonstrates the country’s falling pulse production pattern, diminishing the availability of vegetable protein to the public. A similar trend was observed in states like Assam, where the area under pulse production declined from 1,54,706 hectares in 2017-18 to 1,50,229 hectares in 2018-19, and further fell to 1,43,962 hectares in 2019-20. The provisional data further forecasted the area to fall even further to 1,42,303 hectares in 2020-21. (Statistical Handbook of Assam, 2020 and 2021)

Scientific name: Dioscorea alata L.
Family: Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea alata, commonly known as water yam or purple yam, is a species of yam belonging to the family Dioscoreaceae. Native to Southeast Asia, this tropical and subtropical crop has gained popularity worldwide for its edible, nutrient-rich tubers. The plant's unique characteristic is its purple-colored tubers, which owe their distinct hue to anthocyanins, powerful antioxidants that provide numerous health benefits. With its exceptional nutritional profile, Dioscorea alata has become an attractive alternative to other tubers, offering a valuable addition to various culinary dishes.
Origin and distribution
Dioscorea alata, a yam species, exhibits a widespread geographical distribution, with its origin tracing back to Southeast Asia. Phylogeographical studies indicate that the species has undergone extensive dispersal and cultivation, resulting in its presence globally in tropical and subtropical regions. Notably, D. alata has become naturalized in the southeastern United States, the Caribbean, and parts of Africa, where it is widely cultivated for its edible tubers.

Investigations were undertaken to isolate the fluorescent pseudomonads from the soil and root samples collected from Western Ghats regions of Chikkamagalur district of Karnataka. A total of nine isolates were obtained from 10 sampling sites. All the nine isolates were subjected for morphological, physiological and biochemical characteristics and were tentatively identified as Pseudomonas fluorescens. Isolates were examined for different agriculturally important functions like production of plant growth promoting substances (PGPS), solubilization of TCP and biocontrol activity. Results of the study indicated that, five out of nine isolates found positive for IAA production and the amount of IAA production ranged from 1.92 to 6.75 mg per ml.

The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) has alerted developing countries about possible steep rises in food prices during 2011, if steps are not taken immediately to significantly increase the production of major food crops. According to FAO, ‘with the pressure on world prices of most commodities not abating, the international community must remain vigilant against further supply shocks in 2011’. World cereal production is likely to contract by 2 per cent and global cereal stocks may decline sharply. The price of sugar has reached a 30-year high, while international prices of wheat have increased by 12 per cent in the first week of December 2010 as compared to their November average.

The quantitative and qualitative dimensions of under- and malnutrition prevailing in our country are well known.  The Steering Committee of a high level panel of experts on food and nutrition set up under my chairmanship to advise the UN Committee on Food Security (CFS) has recently concluded that what we need urgently is a comprehensive, coordinated approach to tackling chronic, hidden and transitory hunger, and not piecemeal approaches.

Variety is a group of plants having clear distinguished characters which when reproduced either sexually or asexually retains their characters. The genetic purity of a variety or trueness to its type deteriorates due to several factors during the production cycles. The factors that are responsible for loss of genetic purity during seed production are :

• Developmental Variation
• Mechanical Mixtures
• Mutations
• Natural Crossing
• Genetic drift
• Minor Genetic Variation
• Selective influence of Diseases
• Techniques of the Breeder
• Breakdown of male sterility
• Improper/defective seed certification System

7.1. Okra or Bhindi (Abelmoschus esculentus L.)

Okra (Bhindi) is a member of Malvaceae family, earlier known as Hibiscus esculentus, and is an annual vegetable crop grown from seeds in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. Okra, also known as “lady finger” or “gumbo”, is a highly nutritious green edible pod vegetable. Botanically, this perennial flowering plant belongs to the mallow family but is grown as an annual. It is named scientifically as Abelmoschus esculentus. Okra originated in tropical and subtropical Africa and India is suggested to be the secondary centre of origin. There are four species under Abelmoschus genus which includes both cultivated and wild forms. They are A. esculentus, A. manihot, A. caillei and A. moschatus. In India, Okra is widely cultivated in states of Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam West Bengal, Orissa, Gujarat and Bihar.

Cultivars/Varieties: Okra varieties differ in growth habit, height of plant, presence of purple pigmentation and ridges on fruit. The popular varieties under cultivation in different parts of the country are Arka Abhay, Arka Anamika, Azad Kranti, Co 1, MDU1, Gujarat Bhindi 1, Harbhajan Bhindi, Hisar Unnat, Parbhani Kranti, Perkins Long Green, Punjab 7, Punjab 8, Punjab Padmini, Pusa A 4, Pusa Makhmali, Pusa Sawani, Red Bhindi, TN Hybrid 8 and Varsha Uphar. Besides, a number of hybride from many private sector agencies/seed companies are marketed. Of these, Varsha, Vijay, Adhunik, Panchali, Hybrid No. 6,7 and 8, Nath Sobha, Supriya, Sungro 35, Aroh 1, - 2, -3, -9 and are more popular.

Uses

Different parts of the plant are used for different purposes. Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. Leaves and seeds are considered as valuable traditional medicine. Abelmoschus moschatus is also called ‘musk okra’ a medicinal plant belonging the same family. The leaves and new shoots of this plant is also used as vegetable. The aromatic seeds of this plant are aphrodisiac, ophthalmic, cardio tonic, antispasmodic and used in the treatment of and intestinal complaints and anxiety.

Learning outcome

The purpose is to enable the student to develop deeper knowledge understanding capabilities and attitudes in the context of preparation of extension literature.

Extension materials are straightforward messages that encourage, educate, and improve farmers’ understanding of an innovative, proven technology. Therefore, extension materials must encourage awareness and highlight the benefits and effective application of innovative technologies. Orally or through bulletins/brochures, fact sheets, posters, radio dramas, and videos, extension materials can suggest innovative technologies. Literature is the foundation of any instructional programme. Extension materials must persuade individuals to alter their behaviour.

As early as the 16th century, rhubarb was farmed and marketed for therapeutic purposes. According to History of Fruit, by the 19th century, rhubarb had acquired prominence as a food and vegetable source, with a redder stem and sweeter flavour. Rhubarb is a native of Central Asia, and knowledge of its therapeutic properties dates back five thousand years in China. It was also widely used by Arabs, Greeks, and Romans in antiquity. It came as no surprise to Marco Polo when he discovered it in China in 1271.

Botany and taxonomy: Rhubarb refers to the fleshy, edible stalks (petioles) of Rheum species and hybrids (culinary rhubarb) of the Polygonaceae family, which are cooked and eaten. Rhubarb refers to the entire plant, which is an herbaceous perennial with short, thick rhizomes. The big, triangular leaves are inedible due to high quantities of oxalic acid and throne glycosides. 

24.1 Introduction

Linear programming is a budgeting technique which is more refined and systematic than conventional budgeting in determining the optimum combination of enterprises or inputs so as to maximise the income or combination of enterprises or the income or minimise costs within the limits of available resources. It may be defined as “The analysis of the problem in which a linear function of a number of variables is to be maximised or minimised when these variables are subject to a number of restraints in the form of linear inequalities”, In linear programming models, the objective of the typical farm i.e maximisation of net profit or cost minimisation is achieved through an optimal plan generated from its solution.

Definition

Agricultural journalism is a specialized branch of journalism that deals with the techniques of receiving, writing, editing and reporting from information through the media like newspapers, periodicals, radio, TV, advertising etc. and the management processes connected with such production. It is the timely reporting and editing with words and photography of agricultural news and information for newspaper, magazine, radio and television.

It is otherwise known as Farm journalism

Farm journalism is very important for communicating with farm people. More and more of the extension staff’s writing is being read or listened to in newspapers, magazines, brochures, pamphlets, bulletins, circular letters, wall newspapers, and radio scripts. The written work makes working as a consultant with farmers more fascinating.

Principles of Farm/Agricultural journalism

Scientific name: Plantago ovata Forsk.
Family: Plantaginaceae
Isabgol, or Psyllium husk or Blond psyllium, belongs to the family Plantaginaceae. This medicinal herb has been used for centuries in India, particularly for its seed's therapeutic properties. The name "Isabgol" originates from Persian, with "Isab" meaning horse and "Gol" meaning ear, describing the seed's distinctive shape. Isabgol is cultivated globally and is valued for its medicinal and industrial applications. The seed's medicinal properties make it an effective remedy for constipation and digestive issues. Additionally, Isabgol is used in the food industry to produce various products, such as candies, biscuits, and ice cream.
Origin and distribution
Isabgol (Plantago ovata) is native to the Mediterranean region, West Asia, and parts of Pakistan, including Sindh and Sutleg. Its distribution also extends to the Canary Islands, Southern Spain, the Middle East, North Africa, and North- Western Asia.
Botany
It is 10-15 cm tall short-stemmed annual herb. Flowers in terminal spikes; fruit is a capsule. Theflowers are white in colour and minute. It is highly selfpollinated. The capsule is ovate, 8 mmlong, releasing the smooth, dull, ovate seeds. The seeds are covered with a translucent membrane, known as the husk. The husked seeds are dark red and hard.

Campylobacter species are slender, curved motile Gram negative rods (0.2 to 0.5 pm wide) with polar flagella. Daughter cells which remain joined have a characteristic gull-winged appearance and long spirals formed by joined cells also occur. These microaerophilic organisms grow best on enriched media in an atmosphere of increased CO2 and decreased oxygen tension. Many Campylobacter species grow on MacConkey agar. They are non-fermentative and oxidase-positive and have variable catalase reactions.
Usual Habitat
Many Campylobacter species are commensals in the intestinal tracts of warm-blooded animals. Campylobacter jejuni and C. lari (formerly C. laridis) colonize the intestines of birds, which can result in faecal contamination of water courses and stored food. A number of Campylobacter species are excreted in the faeces of pigs. Campylobacter fetus subspecies venerealis appears to be adapted principally to bovine preputial mucosa.
Differentiation of Campylobacter Species
Campylobacter species are strictly microaerophilic, requiring an atmosphere of 5 to 10% oxygen and 1 to 10% CO2 for growth. A selective enriched medium such as Skirrow agar is usually used for primary isolation. Differentiation of isolates is based on colonial morphology and certain cultural, biochemical and antibiotic-susceptibility characteristics.
Colonial Morphology
• Campylobacter fetus subspecies venerealis and C.fetus subspecies fetus have small, round, smooth, translucent colonies with a dewdrop appearance.
• Campylobacter jejuni produces small, flat, grey colonies with a spreading, watery appearance.

Straw represents a category of low-density feed characterized by a high concentration of structural carbohydrates, specifically cellulose and hemicellulose, while exhibiting low levels of carbohydrates, nitrogen and minerals, along with variable lignin content. Lignin serves as a physical barrier, inhibiting the microbial degradation of these materials. Straw is having low digestibility due to following reasons:
• Reduced voluntary intake due to unappealing taste.
• Low digestibility and nutritional value.
• Nutritional deficiencies, particularly in crude proteins, essential minerals, and vitamins.
• The presence of anti-nutritional components such as lignin, silica, tannins, and oxalates.
The primary aim of treating low-quality roughage includes:
• Enhancing voluntary intake by improving palatability.
• Increasing digestibility to boost the intake of digestible energy.
• Minimizing losses during digestive processes.
• Breaking down cellulose and hemicellulose from lignin and silica to enhance digestibility.
• Expanding the surface area available for microbial action and enzyme activity, thereby improving digestibility.
• Reducing bulkiness through densification.
The processing of low-quality roughages can be achieved through various methods.