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Anacardium occidentale is a medium-sized tree, spreading, and evergreen, much branched; grows to a height of 12 m. When grown on lateritic, gravelly, coastal sandy areas, it rarely exceeds 6 m and develops a spreading habit and globose shape with crown diameter to 12 m but, if grown inland on loams; it reaches 15 m tall and is much branched, with a smaller (4-6 m) crown diameter. The root system of a mature A. occidentale, when grown from the seed, consists of a very prominent taproot and a well developed and extensive network of lateral and sinker roots. Leaves simple, alternate, coriaceous, glabrous, obovate, rounded at ends, 10-18 x 8-15 cm, with short petiole, pale green or reddish when young and dark green at mature. Rai and Vatsala (1985) studied the dermal morphology and stomatal ontogeny of Spondias pinnata Kurz., Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr., Anacardium occidentale L., Holigarna arnottiana Hook. F. and Mangifera indica L. are studied. The cuticle is thick in H. arnottiana, A. occidentale and M. indica, but is thin in S. pinnata and L. coromandelica. Based on the shape of epidermal cells, the five species are categorised into three: cells in both upper and lower epidermis sinuous (A. occidentale, H. arnottiana, S. pinnata); upper sinuous and lower polygonal (M. indica) and upper polygonal and lower sinuous (L. coromandelica). Stomatal ontogeny aperigenous (L. coromandelica), paramesoperigenous (A. occidentale) and anisomesogenous (M. indica, H. arnottiana). S. pinnata is peculiar in that it possesses three different types of stomata, aperigenous, hemiparamesoperigenous and paramesoperigenous; whereas, in all the other four species, only one type of stomatal ontogenesis exists. Except S. pinnata, all the other species possess epidermal appendages. Unicellular trichomes occur in A. occidentale and H. arnottiana, and multicellular glandular trichomes in A. occidentale, M. indica and L. coromandelica. The multicellular hairs are found in A. occidentale in specialized pockets in two rows on either side of the major veins - a unique feature which is reported for the first time.

ABSTRACT

The process of developing new crop varieties involves many steps and takes several years. In recent times, biotechnological advances have helped in reducing these considerably. Apart from the techniques of haploid culture and genetic engineering, one of the tools which is making it easier for scientists to select plant traits and develop new varieties is the use of molecular markers. Molecular markers can be used for (a) characterization of germplasm (b) varietal identification and clonal fidelity testing (c) assessment of genetic diversity (d) validation of genetic relationships and (e) marker- assisted selection. These have widespread applications in management of genetic resources as well as in breeding programmes. Marker-assisted selection has practically revolutionized breeding programmes. Traditionally, plant breeders have selected plants based on their visible or measurable traits called the phenotype. But this process can be difficult especially in the case of multigenic or quantitative traits. Molecular markers can be used to trace linkages with traits of importance. In the area of horticulture, this is a very useful tool in tree breeding, where the breeder has to wait for several years for phenotypic expression of the desired trait. A number of DNA marker technologies are now available and rapid advances are being made in the development of more sensitive marker technologies. The techniques involved, the various applications of DNA marker technologies in horticultural crops and future perspectives in the national context have been discussed.

The residues from production and processing of raw agricultural products such as fruits, vegetables, meat, poultry, dairy products and crops are called agricultural
wastes. The by-products of agricultural activities are also referred to as agricultural waste.

Important Points to be Remember

• Total number of essential nutrient elements required for plant growth -17
• Man made cereal – Triticale
• Father of India’s green revolution – Dr M.S. Swaminathan
• Na, Ve, Ni, Si, Co, Se and I - Beneficial nutrients
• Is added to prevent nitrogen losses from FYM decomposition-SSP

The green pepper or chilli is reported to be the native of tropical America (Thompson and Kelly, 1957). This was widely cultivated in Central and South America in early times and was unknown in Europe prior to the discovery of America. The chilli belongs to the family Solanaceae and genus Capsicum. Only four species are under cultivation, out of which the cultivation of the two, Capsicum pendulum and Capsicum pubescens, are restricted to South and Central America.

2.1 Introduction

Water is the most precious gift of the nature and it is also the most crucial element for sustainability of the life in the earth. India is the largest user of freshwater in the world. India’s total water consumption alone is the higher than any other continents. The Agricultural sector is the largest consumer of water followed by the domestic sector and the industrial sector. The role of irrigation water as one of the most essential inputs for crop cultivation can’t be denied. As a traditional productive input, it ensures production by acting as an agent of insurance against inadequate and inconsistent monsoon. Ultimately the outcome provides agricultural production stability. Thus, irrigation is of prime importance in cultivation of vegetable crops as it ensures favourable water balance within the root zone in addition to natural precipitation. It fulfils the crop- water demand and improves the crop production and effectiveness of other agricultural inputs. It is also an important limiting factor of crop yield, because of its association with several factors of plant environment, which directly influence the crop growth and development (Yaghi et al., 2013). The various irrigation methods under different system of irrigation differ with regard to extent of control, timeliness and adequacy of supply of irrigation water for crop cultivation. Consequently, the economic benefits and the costs due to these irrigation methods vary among different irrigation systems. The dominant method of irrigation practiced in large parts of the country is surface irrigation (basin, border and furrow) where the entire soil surface is almost f looded without considering the actual consumptive requirements of the crops. Frequent over or under irrigation create the problems of water stress or water logging leading to reduced irrigation efficiency (less than 30%).

In 1882, Robert Koch first isolated the bacterium, stained with alkaline methylene blue and vesuvin as counter stain and showed its etiologic relationship with tuberculosis. Ehrlich first developed acid-fast stain in 1882 and used for better staining of the bacteria which was adopted by Robert Koch. The acid-fast staining technique was modified later by Franz Ziehl and Friedrich Neelsen, accordingly, it is known as Ziehl-Neelsen (Z-N) staining. In 1890, Koch prepared a glycerine broth extract of the tubercle bacillus, known as ‘tuberculin’. He tried to prepare it as a curative agent; but it was used later in diagnosis. In 1895, Johne and Frothingham described the first case of paratuberculosis in cattle which became known as ‘Johne’s disease’. The causative bacterium was later isolated by Twort and Ingram in 1910.

In India, bovine tuberculosis is reported from several states since 1959 (Dhanda and Lall, 1959). The bovine paratuberculosis in India was first reported by Nanda and Singh (1940) from Haryana.

Greenhouses have become an essential part of modern agriculture as they offer controlled environments for plant growth, research, and horticultural practices. This chapter discusses the various applications of greenhouses, which include extending growing seasons, improving crop yields, supporting botanical research, and producing ornamental plants. Additionally, it emphasizes the importance of repair and maintenance in greenhouse operations. Understanding the repair and maintenance protocols is crucial to ensure the sustained functionality of heating systems, water management, and structural components.

Tea, the oldest known beverage, is native of China in South East Asia. It was known to the Chinese as early as 2737 BC, but attained the status of a popular drink in England in 1664 A.D. It was planted on a large scale in North India in 1834 while in South India from 1859 to 1897 in different tea growing districts. As on today, 38 countries grow tea and among which India, China, Sri Lanka and Indonesia have major share in area and production. India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter in tea industry.

General evidence of deficiency include either nutrient deficiency in diet or abnormal absorption, utilization or requirement of nutrient under consideration.
Special evidence may be obtained by chemical or biochemical examination of diet.

Natural farming in India is steadily gaining traction across different crop categories like tubers, oilseeds, and spices, thanks to its environmentally sustainable approach. In tuber cultivation—covering crops like potatoes, sweet potatoes, yams, and colocasia—the method promotes organic inputs, crop rotation, and soil health preservation without the use of synthetic chemicals. Natural composts, green manures, and biofertilizers nourish the soil, while homemade biopesticides and pest deterrents help manage common pests and diseases. Techniques such as mulching and moisture conservation further support ideal soil conditions,
improving both the quality and yield of tubers.
For oilseeds such as groundnut, sesame, mustard, and sunflower, natural farming enhances soil fertility using organic manures, decomposed crop residues, and locally made biofertilizers. Treating seeds with cow urine or herbal solutions enhances germination and protects against diseases. Practices like intercropping and crop diversification help disrupt pest life cycles and improve soil texture. Pest control relies on natural, plant-based sprays like neem and garlic, reducing dependency on chemical pesticides while preserving beneficial insect populations.
In the case of spices such as turmeric, cardamom, coriander, and black pepper, natural farming methods offer considerable benefits. The use of vermicompost and green manuring boosts micronutrient availability essential for healthy growth. Mulching helps retain soil moisture, especially in hilly areas. Pests and diseases are controlled using herbal preparations like Panchagavya and Agniastra, which enhance plant resistance and reduce infection rates. These eco-friendly methods lead to the production of high-quality, chemical-free spices and support biodiversity and sustainability.

Cucurbits are major crops of countries having a wide variety of vegetables. Cucurbits include bottle gourd, bitter gourd, pumpkins, squashes, ridge gourd, sponge gourd, and cucumbers. Cucurbits are a large, diverse crop group that are susceptible to over 200 diseases (Zitter et al., 1996). A wide range of pathogens affect the productivity of cucurbits. The diseases may be caused by fungi, bacteria, Cucurbits crops are warm-season large group of crops that are cultivated and harvested over different seasons like spring, summer, and winter. These crops as a group are an important part of a diverse and nutritious diet. Melons are eaten as fruits, whereas summer and winter squashes, cucumber, and pumpkin are eaten as vegetables. In addition, cucurbits are used for fiber, utensils, decoration, ceremonial and medicinal purposes.

A wide range of pathogens affect the productivity of cucurbits, which constitute over 200 diseases (Zitter et al., 1996). The diseases may be caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses, or mycoplasma- like organisms. The disease may be soilborne, seedborne (carried by seed), spread by wind, or transmitted by insect vectors. The moisture content of the seed, storage period, prevailing temperature, and degree of invasion influence the development of seedborne fungi (Anjorin and Mohammed 2009). The pathogen may cause seed abortion and rot, necrosis, reduction, or elimination of germination capacity as well as seedling damage at later stages of plant growth, resulting in the develop- ment of the disease as systemic or local infection (Khanzada et al., 2001). The diseases cause heavy loss in terms of yield and quality. The diseases caused by pathogen are controlled by fungicides against fungal diseases, antibiotics for bacterial diseases, or insecticide in case of viruses transmitted by insect vectors. The diseases of cucurbetaceous crops can be managed by adopting different cultural, biological, and chemical methods of disease management. The following management practices are required to be taken into consideration for raising disease-free cucurbitaceous crops:

Onion (Onion cepa, 2n = 2x 16, highly cross-pollinated, family Amaryllidaceae), is a valuable vegetable crop for the people all over the world. Tomato, onion and potato put together have been given a nick name as TOP seeing their combined importance globally. As per Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare-Horticulture Statistics Division, Government of India (MAFW, 2018), the global acreage, production and productivity of onion during 2016 were 4.96 million ha, 93.17 million tons and 18.80 tons/ha. Top 10 onion producing countries in the world are China, India, Egypt, USA, Iran, Turkey, Russian Federation, Pakistan, Brazil and Argentina. During 2016, China occupied I rank with area, production and productivity figures of 1.09 million ha, 23.91 million tons and 22.00 tons/ha. India was closely at II rank with corresponding figures of 1.20 million ha, 19.20 million tons and 16.18 tons/ha. Productivity-wise, USA is at the top rank (56.40 tons/ha), followed by Iran (37.95 tons/ha) and Egypt (36.71 tons/ha). The Netherlands is the world’s largest onion exporter with a total of around 800,000 tons, which is ca. 80% of its total annual production (Shigyo and Kik, 2008).

Within India, which produced 19.20 million tons of onion from 1.20 million ha (12 lakh ha), the major onion producing states during 2017-18 have been as given

Preparation of Samples

Before withdrawing portions for analytical determinations, bring the sample to a temperature of 26 to 28ºC and mix throughly by pouring gently into a clean dry receptacle and back, until a homogenous mixture is assured. If lumps of cream do not completely disappear, warm the sample to about 40ºC, mix throughly, then cool to 26 to 28ºC. In case a measured volume is required in a determination, bring the temperature of the sample to about 27ºC before pipetting. All samples shall be allowed to stand for three to four minutes after mixing to allow air bubbles to rise ; the sample bottle shall then be inverted three or four times immediately prior to taking the milk for analysis. If a sample is curdled, excessively churned or decomposed, the sample should not be taken up for analysis.

B cell : It is one of the lymphocytes that have antigen-binding antibody molecules on the surface, that comprise the antibody-secreting plasma cells when mature, and that in mammals differentiate in the bone marrow. It is also called B lymphocyte.

B.T.U. : It stands for British thermal unit. The heat required to raise the temperature of one pond of the water through 1oF is called BTU.

Baby back ribs : Meaty pork ribs cut from the lower back rib section.

9.1. Introduction

Oceans (from Okeanos in Greek) are saline waters that cover almost three quarters (71%) of the surface of the Earth. The area of the oceans is 361 million sq. km., and nearly half of the world’s marine waters are over 3,000 meters deep.

Though somewhat arbitrarily divided into several “separate” oceans, these oceans are in fact one global, interconnected body of salt water, often called the World Ocean. The major divisions are defined in part by the continents and a variety of archipelagos, and are labeled the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean, and the Arctic Ocean. Smaller regions of the oceans are called seas, gulfs and straits.

There are a some smaller bodies of salt water that are not interconnected with the World Ocean. These are not considered to be oceans or parts of oceans, though some of them have been given the name, sea.

Geologically, an ocean is an area of oceanic crust covered by water. Oceanic crust is the thin layer of solidified volcanic basalt that covers the Earth’s mantle where there are no continents. From this point of view, there are three “oceans” today: the World Ocean, and the Black and Caspian Seas that were formed by the collision of Cimmeria with Laurasia. The Mediterranean Sea is very nearly its own “ocean”, being connected to the World Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar, and indeed several times over the last few million years movement of the African Continent has closed the strait off entirely, making the Mediterranean a fourth “ocean”.

Olericulture, a Latin word, is used to designate the science, culture and management of vegetable crops. In India, about more than fifty vegetable crops are grown in different parts, depending on their climatic requirement. A number of vegetables have similarity in their method of cultivation, which makes the package of practices followed by the farmers for their cultivation very complicated and brings about a lot of repetition. Whichever the method is adopted for the classification of vegetables can systematize the preparation and presentation of the material to some extent and can avoid the unnecessary duplication of some of the principles and methods of vegetable cultivation. In different vegetables, different plant parts are used as food in different forms and they belong to different botanical families with varying cultural and climatic requirements but common insect-pests and diseases along with their common control measures.

Various methods may be used to classify all the vegetable crops into different categories but no single method of classification would be useful to serve the purpose for different groups of scientists like taxonomists, botanists, physiologists, horticulturists, agronomists, and breeders. Under field conditions, the classification based on cultural practices has been proved the best adaptable and very useful for the growers. Vegetable crops can be classified in the following ways for the convenience of different groups of scientist and growers:

Olericulture, a Latin word, is used to designate the science, culture and management of vegetable crops. In India, about more than fifty vegetable crops are grown in different parts, depending on their climatic requirement. A number of vegetables have similarity in their method of cultivation, which makes the package of practices followed by the farmers for their cultivation very complicated and brings about a lot of repetition. Whichever the method is adopted for the classification of vegetables can systematize the preparation and presentation of the material to some extent and can avoid the unnecessary duplication of some of the principles and methods of vegetable cultivation. In different vegetables, different plant parts are used as food in different forms and they belong to different botanical families with varying cultural and climatic requirements but common insect-pests and diseases along with their common control measures.

Various methods may be used to classify all the vegetable crops into different categories but no single method of classification would be useful to serve the purpose for different groups of scientists like taxonomists, botanists, physiologists, horticulturists, agronomists, and breeders. Under field conditions, the classification based on cultural practices has been proved the best adaptable and very useful for the growers. Vegetable crops can be classified in the following ways for the convenience of different groups of scientist and growers:

After attaining green revolution, nutritional security is of utmost importance in the current agricultural scenario. Vegetables play a key role in providing nutritional security in the country. They are important and readily available source of mineral nutrients and vitamins and play a vital role in the financial economy of the majority of small and marginal farmers. Further, these roles are becoming more transparent in the light of agriculture diversification as the vegetables have many agro-economic advantages and can fit into varying cropping systems under diversified conditions. After China, India is a leading vegetable producer but the productivity of vegetables per unit area is very low compared to other developed countries. Poor crop stand establishment is one of the factors responsible for low productivity. Yield and productivity can be improved by using advanced technology on the field preparation, optimum sowing conditions, correct nursery practices and planting methods.

Almost all the vegetable crops are propagated by seed, except a few. Crops are raised either by direct seeding in the field or by transplanting seedlings raised in nurseries. Direct seeding is the placement of seeds at desired depth into the final location where soil environment is ideal for optimum germination and crop stand establishment. On the other side, transplanting refers to removal of actively growing seedlings from one place to another with the purpose of having them continue their growth in the new location until harvest.

The vegetable crops like peas, beans, cowpea, okra, beet leaf, spinach, fenugreek, coriander, carrot, radish, turnip, beetroot, etc. are sown directly in the field, while tomato, eggplant, hot pepper, sweet pepper, onion, leek, sweet potato, cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, Brussels sprout, kohlrabi, kale, lettuce, celery, parsley, rhubarb, squashes, etc. are first sown in the nursery beds where seedlings are raised and then transplanted in the main field. Both direct seeding and transplanting are practiced in most of the cucurbits like gourds, cucumber, melons and pumpkin.

The directly sown vegetable crops do not respond to transplanting because their embryonic roots do not produce lateral fibrous roots after uprooting unlike transplanted crops where numerous fibrous roots are generated, thus, making the plant to absorb more nutrients.