eChapters

Abstract

Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) have emerged as potential tools for competent planning and administration of water resources. In this study, a new methodology is proposed to delineate groundwater target zones using integrated RS, GIS and Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) method. The developed methodology is confirmed by a case study in Karur district of Tamil Nadu, Southern India. Seven thematic layers, viz., Lithology, Lineament Density, Geomorphology, Slope, Post– Monsoon Water Level, Drainage Density and Land use / Land cover were considered in this study. Selected seven thematic layers and their features were assigned suitable weights on the Saaty’s scale according to their virtual significance in groundwater incidence. The assigned weights of the thematic layers and their features were then normalized by using AHP. Finally, the selected seven thematic maps were incorporated by weighted linear combination method in a GIS environment to produce a groundwater target map.

ABSTRACT

Topsoil erosion, loss of fertile soil and subsequent deposition in the reservoir as well as in the low-lying region are one of the major problems in the tropical mountainous region. Knowledge of sediment yield from the river basin is a prerequisite to address such issues. Rivers from the Western Ghat region of Uttara Kannada district bring lot of sediments causing siltation in their mouth. In the present study, sediment yield from a Venkatapur river basin in Bhatkal Taluk of Uttara Kannada district is estimated by Universal Soil Loss equation (USLE). Morphometric characteristics of the river basins that reflect sediment yield potential of the river basin are used to constrain the data obtained. Various parameters for USLE is derived from the IRS 1D LISS III image and data are handled in GIS environment. Sediment yields in the basin 101 tons/yr. Morphometric characters of the basin such as drainage density, bifurcation ratio, basin circularity (0.6) and form factor (0.43) suggest its low potential of sediment yield.

Abstract

Remote sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) are integrated system in providing precise information on nature, extent and spatial distribution of land resources to assess their potential and limitations for planning, monitoring and management towards sustainable development. The use of remote sensing and GIS provide immense opportunities in the field of large-scale mapping, generate and update of existing geographical databases for decision making in site- specific management and development of land resources. Integration of remote sensing and GIS includes the use of each technology to benefit the other, as well as the application of both the technologies for geospatial modelling and decision support. Remote sensing and GIS integration has clearly benefited from advances in computing and Global Positioning System (GPS) technologies, including innovations in use of decision tree algorithms and neural networks. The generated precise spatial database in GIS on land resources, socio-economic and contemporary technologies could be effectively used to develop GIS based Spatial Decision Support Systems (SDSS) for sustainable management of land resources. In this article an attempt has been made to provide an overview on the remote sensing and GIS technologies as a special decision support tools in inventory, characterization and management of land resources particularly in digital terrain analysis, geomorphological mapping, hydrological applications, soil resource inventory, assessment of soil loss, land degradation and soil fertility, soil-site suitability and watershed prioritization.

Abstract

Food security to the increasing population on one side and the increasing export of food grains on the other side has lead to the immediate attention on to raise the food production in our country. The decreasing land availability for agriculture due to the increased degraded lands and use of agricultural lands for non agricultural purposes has still worsened the situation. In order to match with the food requirement from decreasing agricultural lands, Indian agriculture has been pushed towards indiscriminate use of farm inputs exploiting the non renewable natural resources without any concern to the environmental ill effects leading to further degrading of the situation. Even though the concept of sustainability is age old, the importance is felt recently. Sustainable use of resources at farm level can magnify the effect of conserving non renewable resources and reducing ill effects on the environment at state level and to the country. Sustained farm production is a key to manage our resources and environment. Adoption of new information technologies with the conventional agronomic practices to increase farm production is made inevitable due to our past experience. The advancement in the technology tools like Remote Sensing, Geographic Information System, Global Positioning System and Decision Support Systems have paved way for better and effective management of crop production at farm level. 46 Geospatial Technologies for Natural Resources Management

A systematic approach of management involving advanced technologies and conventional agronomic practices through understanding the factors like soil variability, weather parameters and crops that contribute for the sustainable farm production is need of the hour. The spatial and temporal variability of the farm production parameters are to be studied and mapped in relation to historical data of the farm for successful site specific management. Site specific management tools may improve decisions related to site conditions, thereby reducing the aspect of uncertainty in the management system. This approach of farm management using advanced technologies viz., Remote Sensing, Geographic Information System, Global Positioning System, Variable rate technology, crop production modeling and Decision Support System can enable sustainable farm production with beneficial effect on the environment in future.

Keywords : Remote sensing, GIS, Sustainable Farm production, Site Specific Management

Introduction
Accurate and detailed information on the geographical location, aerial extent, and spatial distribution of wastelands is crucial for their efficient management and sustainable rehabilitation. Among modern resource assessment tools, Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) have emerged as powerful technologies for detecting, evaluating, mapping, and monitoring degraded lands. Space-borne multispectral imagery, with its ability to provide large-scale, repetitive coverage, has proven particularly effective in identifying salt-affected soils and waterlogged areas in a timely and cost-efficient manner. In visual interpretation of satellite data, regions with high soil moisture and surface waterlogging appear as dark grey to black, indicating areas prone to water stagnation. To analyze the spatial dynamics of wastelands and assess the effectiveness of high-resolution satellite imagery, IRS P6 satellite data (23.5 m resolution) alongside topographical maps (1:50,000 scale) are commonly used. Given the dynamic nature of wastelands, multi-temporal satellite data is essential for precise delineation. These images must be geo-referenced within a unified coordinate system for consistency. The Planning Commission of India has endorsed GIS as an indispensable tool for land-use planning and wasteland development, facilitating treatment area identification, landuse trade-off analysis, and impact assessment simulations. Recognizing the importance of wasteland management in national development, the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) initiated a GIS-based wasteland mapping project in 1991, building upon earlier efforts by the Department of Science (1986) under the National Wasteland Identification Project, which mapped 147 districts at a 1:50,000 scale. A Task Force was established to develop a standardized classification system, later approved by the Planning Commission, categorizing wastelands into:

Remote sensing

It is the art and science of obtaining information about an object, area, or phenomenon through the analysis of data acquired by a device without being in physical contact. Remote sensing technology involves acquiring information about the earth’s surface and atmosphere, using satellite based sensor, interpretation, of spectral measurements and characterization of land resources and environmental phenomena.

The information recorded by this technology is not visible to humankind. It provides synoptic view as well as three-dimensional view of larger area. And data are received periodically and helps in monitoring the changes at short intervals. The data recording is unbiased one which is stored permanently and can be used in many applications. Thus, processing of data is faster than the conventional interpretation method. Thus, soil resources data collected by extensive ground surveys and soil maps were prepared using cartographic techniques these were tedious, costly and time consuming. Multi date, multi spectral and real time satellite data provide a reliable accurate tool for assessment and repeat coverage of the same area at the same local time for monitoring soil resources (Joshi, 2013). In remote sensing, reflected energy from the object is recorded by a sensor. The information about the object is obtained through the analysis of reflected rays. Three energy interactions occurs when electromagnetic energy falls on any surface feature i.e., reflection, absorption and transmission.

Technical Term                                 Definition

Geographical Information System

Base Map                                          Basic representation of a region of the earth as it would appear if viewed from above. That is a map containing geographic

                                                          features that is used for reference. Roads, for example, are commonly found on base maps

Abstract

The southern part of the Indian Peninsula has long been regarded as a stable area free from Pleistocene tectonics as it represents the Precambrian shield region. But the frequent earth tremors even up to a magnitude of 6.5 (Richter scale) which occurred in Tamil Nadu have started encouraging the geologists to think that it could possibly be a seismic prone zone. In addition, images acquired by the polar orbiting satellites offered valuable information on the fracture systems and fluvial anomalies suggesting possible Pleistocene tectonism in South India. Hence, a study has been undertaken to evaluate the signatures of Pleistocene tectonism in South India using IRS-lA, LISS-1 FCC imagery (Indian Remote Sensing Satellite lA, Linear Imaging Self Scanning 1, False Colour Composite) involving band 2, 3 and 4 under blue, green and red bands respectively.

The study has brought out a series of E-W trending cymatogenic arches and N-S trending extension, NE-SW trending sinistral, NW-SE trending dextral and E-W trending release fractures with characteristic signatures supporting Pleistocene tectonism in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

On the basis of such morphotectonic features, a Pleistocene tectonic model has been presented with a N-S trending greatest principal stress and an E-W oriented least principal stress related to the movement of the Indian plate towards the Tibetan plate. Based on the model developed for Tamil Nadu and Kerala, a series of E-W trending cymatogenic arches and deeps have been proposed for Cochin- Rameswaram in the south to the Himalayas in the north. Further studies for seismotectonics, geothermal resources and hydrocarbon search have also been suggested along such arches and deeps.

Abstract

The art of remote sensing has opened up many vistas in the study of river migration as satellite photographs, both in their normal and digitally enhanced modes, vividly show the rivers and their migratory signatures. The rivers migrate for various reasons amongst which tectonic movement is one of the main causes. In the present study an attempt has been made to exhibit the palaeochannel network of the rivers of Western India and integrate them with lineament fabric, so as to understand the Quaternary tectonics of the region. The study has shown that Western India shows considerable signs of Quaternary tectonics.

Abstract

The art of remote sensing has opened up many vistas in the study of river migration as satellite photographs, both in their normal and digitally enhanced modes, vividly show the rivers and their migratory signatures. The rivers migrate for various reasons amongst which tectonic movement is one of the main causes. In the present study an attempt has been made to exhibit the palaeochannel network of the rivers of Western India and integrate them with lineament fabric, so as to understand the Quaternary tectonics of the region. The study has shown that Western India shows considerable signs of Quaternary tectonics.

ABSTRACT

Coastal zones are credited for the important role they play in the economic, industrial and commercial activities of many countries. Starting from the early fifties of the last century, coastal zones have attracted greater attention from the earth scientists owing to the discovery of huge hydrocarbon deposits in the Persian Gulf, Africa and South America. In addition, coastal zones especially those bordering Precambrian Cratons house significant quantities of economically important placer minerals which are being explored and exploited vigorously. In the present paper, sedimentary basins located along the continental margins of Tamil Nadu state, their geology and hydrocarbon potential are discussed. In addition, an attempt has also been made to demonstrate the usefulness of remote sensing techniques in the exploration of this strategic mineral.

Remote sensing involves measurement of the physical properties of a body without actual contact with it. It is based on the reflectance when the electromagnetic radiation is incident upon a body or surface. The spectral characteristics of the reflected radiation vary depending upon the nature and condition of the surface. In case of vegetation, it absorbs light and can reflect light in the visible range. The leaf pigments dominate the reflectance properties (Fig.9.1). The radiation bands within which the reflectance of electromagnetic radiation takes place are classified as follows-
Spectrum Wave Length (nm)
Visible 400-700
Near Infrared 701-1300
Middle infrared 1301-2500
Far infrared >3000

9.1. Vegetation Indices
The vegetation index is a mathematical expression that uses spectral imaging data to characterize the health and growth of the vegetation indices are calculated using data collected by remote sensors like Satellites. The vegetation indices have wide range of applications in agriculture and hydrology including
• Classification of vegetation
• Apex health of vegetation
• Changes in land cover
• Drought monitoring
• Estimation of soil moisture
• Evaluate crop growth, vigour, biomass and chlorophyll content
• Irrigation scheduling

4.1 Introduction
Having explored the direct, “hands-on” approach of in situ observations in the previous chapter, we now turn our attention to remote sensing. In contrast to in situ methods, remote sensing allows us to gather information about the atmosphere without physically touching it. Instead, it relies on the detection of electromagnetic radiation (or acoustic waves) that has been emitted, reflected, or scattered by the atmosphere or its constituents.
This chapter will focus specifically on ground-based remote sensing platforms. Positioned on or near the Earth’s surface, these instruments offer unique advantages for continuous monitoring of the atmosphere above a fixed location, providing valuable insights into vertical profiles, temporal evolution, and localized phenomena. From radars that peer into storms to lidars that probe aerosols and winds, and radiometers that measure emitted radiation, ground-based remote sensing provides a vital link between highly localized in situ measurements and the broader spatial coverage offered by satellite and
airborne systems.
We will delve into the fundamental principles behind several key groundbased remote sensing instruments used in meteorology. This will include an examination of how they interact with the atmosphere, the types of atmospheric parameters they can measure (such as precipitation, wind, temperature, humidity, aerosols, and trace gases), and the strengths and limitations of each technique. By understanding the capabilities of these ground-based “eyes” on the sky, we can better appreciate their contribution to weather forecasting, atmospheric research, and environmental monitoring.

Remotely gathered data are available from a range of sources and data collection techniques is often one type of tool that is not always found within the public domain easily. This is larger due to the fact that most of the data are acquired by equipment is expensive to build and maintain. However, there are many types of basic imagery, high-quality imageries are readily available widely at subsidized costs, particularly the purpose intented.

Remote Sensing in Mineral Exploration

Remote sensing is a powerful tool used in mineral exploration to study and identify minerals and mineral deposits from a distance. This technology allows geologists to gather information about the Earth's surface and subsurface without having to physically access the site. Here are some ways remote sensing is used in mineral exploration:

Mapping Geology: Remote sensing can be used to map geology by identifying surface features associated with mineral deposits. Geologists use images collected by remote sensing satellites and aircraft to create detailed maps of the geology and topography of a region. These maps can help identify areas that are likely to contain mineral deposits.

Mineral Identification: Remote sensing can help identify specific minerals by analyzing the reflectance or absorption patterns of light. Different minerals have unique spectral signatures that can be detected by remote sensing instruments. By analyzing these signatures, geologists can identify the type and abundance of minerals present in an area.

Remote Sensing in Oil Exploration

Remote sensing plays a significant role in the oil exploration industry. It refers to the use of sensors and instruments to gather information about the Earth's surface and its environment from a distance. This information can be used to locate and evaluate oil and gas deposits.

There are different remote sensing techniques used in oil exploration, including

Seismic surveys: This technique involves creating sound waves underground and recording their reflection to determine the subsurface structure. It is commonly used in oil exploration to locate potential oil and gas deposits.

Magnetic surveys: This technique uses a magnetometer to measure the magnetic field of the Earth's surface. Magnetic anomalies can indicate the presence of underground geological structures that may contain oil or gas deposits.

Gravity surveys: This technique involves measuring variations in the Earth's gravitational field, which can indicate the presence of underground geological structures.

6.1 Introduction to Remote Sensing in Watershed Management

Remote sensing involves acquiring information about the Earth's surface without physical contact, using satellite or aerial imagery. This technology has revolutionized watershed management by providing detailed and timely data, crucial for effective planning and decision-making.

6.2 Remote Sensing Technologies and Techniques

Satellite Imagery

Satellite imagery involves capturing images of the Earth from space using satellites equipped with sensors. Some of the most notable satellite missions providing high-resolution imagery for large-scale environmental monitoring include Landsat, Sentinel, and MODIS.

a. Landsat: Operated by NASA and the US Geological Survey, Landsat satellites have been observing the Earth since 1972. Landsat provides medium-resolution images (15-60 meters per pixel) in both visible and infrared wavelengths, allowing for detailed monitoring of land use, vegetation health, and water bodies.

ABSTRACT

Leaf N and chlorophyll (Chl) concentration of crop are important indicators of plant nitrogen status. Laboratory determination of plant tissue N is time consuming and costly. Also remote sensing is quickly becoming recognized as a valuable tool that has the potential to asses a wide variety of physiological properties over a large area in a short amount of time. This study examined the relationship of sorghum and bajra canopy reflectance spectral response to its nitrogen and chlorophyll content. The study consisted of two nitrogen level (N₀ : no nitrogen and N₁: recommended dose of nitrogen for each crop) for two crops (sorghum and bajra) . Chlorophyll and N content were measured throughout the growing season for both crops. Reflectance at increased significantly as N fertilizer rate decreased. Chl and N were strongly related to canopy reflectance for either individual wavelength or for spectral vegetative indices or ratios. Sorghum nitrogen fertilizer rate mainly affected leaf reflectance at 575 and 623 nm, while bajra at 565 and 657nm. The reflectance values at 581 and 603 nm had the highest correlation with sorghum leaf N concentration. Similarly, bajra leaf N concentration was highly correlated with 619 and 696 nm. Sorghum and bajra leaf N concentrations were highly correlated with reflectance ratio of R₅₈₁/ R₃₈₁ (r²= 0.44*) and R₆₁₉/R₄₆₂ (r²= 0.78***) respectively with greatest r² value. Similarly, Sorghum and bajra leaf Chl concentrations were highly correlated with R677/R527 (r²= 0.63**) andR688/R409 (r²= 0.71***) or R615/R411 (r2=0.71***),

respectively. Thus our results suggest that spectral reflectance measurements hold promise for the assessment of some physiological parameter at the leaf level real time monitoring of sorghum and bajra N status and N fertilizer management.

Much has been talked about the mighty river systems and their migratory histories, since Purana and Vedic times. In Mahabharata the places where the Lord Krishna is said to have played with Gopis in the banks of River Yamuna are now forming flat lands many kilometers away from the present day Yamuna. In the same way, there is a mention in ancient literature about the ‘Indo-Brahm’ river which was originated from the Himalayas and flown through Brahmaputra valley, Indo-Gangetic plains, Rajasthan desert and met the Arabian Sea in Rann of Kutch. Such a mighty river is said to have fragmented into Brahmaputra, Ganges and the Indus rivers due to Tectonic activity in Himalayan regions. Similarly there are many evidences in the Tamil literature. For example in ‘Kalingathuparani’ it is mentioned that the river ‘Palar’ was flowing north of Kanchipuram but the same river is now flowing south of it.

All these facts show that the rivers have the tendency to frequently change their courses. The advent of modern Remote Sensing Technology has opened up new vistas in studying such migratory rhythms of the rivers, as such old and buried rivers exhibit spectacular ribbon like, linear, curvilinear and contorted features with typical darker tone in black and white images and reddish tone in false color composites (FCC) and other color coded images.