eChapters

Brooding is a crucial phase in poultry management that involves the care of day old chicks during the early stages of their lives. Due to their underdeveloped thermoregulatory systems, chicks cannot maintain their body temperature and thus require external warmth. Proper brooding ensures the healthy growth and development of the chicks. The brooder unit typically includes several key components and considerations.

Brooding of chicks

1. Floor brooding

• Floor brooders (canopy/hover brooder or infra-red bulb brooder) are used to keep specific area(s) within the shed at the desired temperature.

• In canopy or hover brooding method, an umbrella-like canopy with two or three incandescent bulbs (40 to 100 W) each, depending on the season) are fixed at the centre, is inverted and hung in such a way that the birds can move freely in and out of it.

• The bulbs, when put on, heat the air and the hot air is trapped by the canopy preventing the escape of hot air thereby providing warmth to the chicks.

• The height of the brooder should be around 6 inches during the first week.

ABSTRACT

Sweet Corn (Zea mays var. saccharata var. rugosa) also called Indian corn, sugar corn, and pole corn is a kind of maize having high sugar content (12 – 15%). It is a very delicious and rich source of energy, vitamin A and vitamin C. It is consumed as raw, boiled or steamed green cobs/ grain. Cooked/ processed sweet corn has significant antioxidant activity which has been suggested to minimize the chance of heart disease and cancer. In addition to this, it is also utilized in preparation of soup, salad and other famous recipes. Besides green cobs, the green fodder is also available to the farmers for their cattle. It requires deep fertile and good drainage loam or sandy loam soil with neutral pH. It germinates best at the temperature range from 20^°C - 25^°C. Green cobs are harvested after 20 days of pollination during kharif but the days may accorded by season to season. It is ready to harvest in 70-75 days during kharif season and 105 – 110 days during rabi season. After harvesting, green cobs should be immediately transported to the cold storage in refrigerated trucks to avoid the conversion of sugar to starch because loses flavor at high temperature. Being a short duration crop (70-80 days), farmer can earn 2.0 to 2.5 lac rupees per hectare because it require less input i.e. water, manpower and other crop management practices. Therefore, it can generate a good employment for rural youthdue to high demand in hotels for preparation of various dishes.

Electrophoresis is a method used to separate charged particles from one another based on differences in their migration speed. In the course of electrophoresis, two electrodes (typically made of an inert metal, e.g. platinum) are immersed in two separate buffer chambers. Gel electrophoresis is a technique used to separate molecules based on physical characteristics such as size, shape, or isoelectric point. A gel is composed of agarose or polyacrylamide. Agarose is used for separating DNA fragments in size range of 100bp to 20kb. Polyacrylamide is preferred for smaller DNA fragments. Separation is achieved by moving the negatively charged nucleic acid molecules through agarose matrix with an electric field. Rate of migration of DNA molecules is inversely proportional to their molecular weight. Smaller molecules move faster than larger ones. But conformation of the DNA molecule is also an important factor. Conformations of a DNA plasmid that has not been cut with a restriction enzyme will move with different speeds such as: supercoiled plasmid DNA will move fastest followed by linearised DNA, while open circular DNA will move at the slowest pace. To visualise DNA, gels are stained with ethidium bromide which intercalates in DNA and fluorescse under UV.

Managing the National Food Security System

Rajiv Gandhi understood the wisdom of Gandhiji’s doctrine that Gram Swaraj is the pathway to Purna Swaraj and launched the Panchayati Raj movement. Schedule 11 of Constitution Amendment 73 entrusts panchayats with the responsibility of managing natural resources and fostering sustainable agriculture. Representative democracy through elected members, one third of whom are women, and participatory democracy through Gram Sabhas, are powerful tools for ensuring a pro-nature, pro-poor, pro-women, and pro-livelihood orientation to all rural and agricultural development programmes.
 
The National Commission on Farmers has emphasised the need for community-managed food and water security systems promoted with the help and oversight of Gram Sabhas.  The Gram Sabha can serve as a Pani Panchayat to ensure that rainwater is not only harvested, but is used in a sustainable and equitable manner.

2.1    Origin
    
2.2    Production
    
2.3    Distribution

2.4    World Scenario

Seed Packing

Seed packaging is the process of filling, weighing and sewing of bags with seed. The choice of packaging materials and amount of seeds to be packed depends on kind of seeds to be packed, duration of storage, storage environment, the seed moisture content, the cost of seed, the cost of packaging material, the geographical area where the seeds will be stored.

Introduction

Germination is the process by which a plant grows from a seed or similar structure. The most common example of germination is the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm. Quick germination is the various ways and means that really fastened the process of seed germination. Through various ways, it is possible to reduce the time of germination by 70 per cent and also the success rate of germination can also be doubled.

8.1. Law of Mass Action

Gulberg and Waage, the two Norwegian chemists in the year 1864 stated the law of mass action in this form: ‘The velocity of any chemical reaction at any instant at a given temperature is proportional to the active mass of each of the reactants at that instant present in the system, the active mass in a homogeneous system is defined as the number of gram molecule of the substance present per unit volume i.e., the molar volume’.

Mathematical Formulation of the Law of Mass Action

Let us take a simple case of a reversible reaction at constant temperature represented by the equation:

Chromatography is one of the most effective technique for accurate, fast and convenient separation and identification of the components of a mixture. The method was developed by Russian botanist Mikhail Tswett (1906), described by Karl Runge (1855). Martin and Synage (1944) received Noble Prize for developing methodology of partition Chromatography.

Partition chromatography

Partition chromatogaphy is a system comprising of two physically distinguished components - a mobile component or phase and a stationary component or phase. A mixture of substances which are to be separated is placed on the system and separation takes place on the basis of difference in distribution of molecular species in two phases. Relative movement is a result of driving force and retarding effects.

Stationary phase is the sorbent, which may be liquid or paper or gel. If it is liquid then it is held stationary by adsorbing on a solid support or matrix. The mobile phase may be solvent or developer or a gas. Since the two phases are immiscible, the partitioning is defined as the distribution of solute in two immisicible phases which are in contact with one another. When a column is filled with the sorbent and solvent the two phases form a large number of theoretical plates. Each plate contains both the phases. Solutes in solution (mixture of substances to be separated) is layered on the top of the column and when it enters to the column it distributes in the two phases. The ratio of the concentration of a solute in two phases is called its partition coefficient. The resolution of solutes improves as the length of stationary phase increases.

Aim

To study the determination of drying rate of agricultural products

Problem

In a drying experiment on paddy at an air temperature of 60ºC, the following data were obtained. Prepare a drying rate curve for the experiment. Initial weight of the sample is 1250 gm and initial moisture content is 35% (d.b).

To cater the increased demand of food, it will be required that farmers are equipped with tools and methods to improve their yields and make informed decisions [1]. Also, with the increase in population, the agricultural land is decreasing by 1 lakh hectares per year and it is required to double the agricultural produce in the next 30 years to sustain the global food requirements.

The improvements in various technological fields like machine learning, navigation, robotics etc. and their applications in agriculture is required to meet this increasing need. One of the factors is to make the farmland ready for sowing the crops, spraying, etc. and this has to be done in a precise and faster manner to address the latter issues. So, the uses of autonomous tractors for such jobs offer accurate, precise and timely preparation of the fields for the cultivation.

12.1 Introduction

Autonomous tractors or driverless tractors are unmanned ground vehicles mainly employed in agriculture for various purpose like preparation of land for the crops, harvesting, spraying, and other agricultural purposes. They are equipped with GPS, autopilot, cameras, lasers (LiDAR), and other wireless technologies navigation and mutual coordination and offer saving of both the manpower and time. These autonomous tractors can be programmed to navigate their paths through the fields and are designed to avoid the obstacles while doing their jobs. These tractors automate various laborious field jobs and also minimize human intervention in the process.

These autonomous machines are regarded to revolutionize the agriculture industry and offer safety, sharing of resources, economical solutions per square area of land, etc. Several industries like Jhon Dheere, AgraBots, EcoRobotix, RowBot, etc.

11.1 Performance of Farm Irrigation Systems

The performance of farm irrigation systems is determined by the efficiency with which water is delivered to the field and utilized to the fullest amount possible with minimum losses due to seepage and percolation, runoff, evaporation and other operational losses. The efficiency of the irrigation system will increase if the conveyance losses, application losses and other losses are reduced to a great extent.

11.1.1 Overall Efficiency

The overall efficiency of a farm irrigation system is defined as the percent of water applied to the farm that is used for irrigation on the farm. Irrigation efficiency otherwise called as overall system efficiency is defined.

9.1 Introduction

Pineapple is one of the most important commercial fruits of the world. It is good source of vitamin A, B and fairly rich in vitamin C, minerals like calcium, phosphorous and iron. Fresh fruit is used as dessert. Fruit is also used for juice, squash, jam, mixed jam and in canned form. Fruit core is used for preparing candy. Some cultivars of pineapple are used for extraction of fibre. The important pineapple growing states are Assam, West Bengal, Tripura, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh.

Fresh fish serves as a protein-rich food for people of all income groups. Dry fish is in greater demand when the availability of fresh fish in the market is low. Dry fish have a higher concentration of protein (in terms of weight) as compared to wet fish and are an inexpensive source of animal protein. Moreover, dry fish production provides employment opportunities to fishermen, fish farmers, rural youth, and women and also helps them to generate extra income. In addition, it also provides food and nutritional security to the rural, underprivileged population. Though dry fish enterprises have a significant role in improving the livelihood as well as the nutritional security of society, not much attention has been paid to the production and marketing of dry fish products.

Introduction

Setting up dairy farms and processing units requires substantial capital investment, making access to reliable sources of finance essential for success (Yilma et al., 2011). Dairy farming and milk processing are critical components of the agricultural sector, providing nutrition and livelihoods to millions, particularly in rural areas. Financing options are necessary to cover the costs of livestock, infrastructure, and equipment for milk production, storage, and distribution. Various sources of finance are available to entrepreneurs and farmers, including bank loans, government subsidies, and microfinance (Gashayie and Singh, 2015). Commercial banks offer long-term loans under agricultural finance schemes, providing funding for both purchasing assets and managing daily operations. Government programs often provide subsidies and grants to promote dairy farming, such as the Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme (DEDS) in India, which supports small scale farmers (Naik and Patel, 2022). Microfinance institutions (MFIs) also play a vital role in offering credit to small and marginal farmers with fewer formalities. Additionally, cooperative societies and producer companies help pool resources, offering financial and technical support to dairy farmers (Kumar et al., 2021). For larger processing units, venture capital and private equity investments can provide growth capital. Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and international funds also contribute to the dairy sector by offering low-interest loans and promoting sustainability. Understanding these diverse sources of finance is key for dairy entrepreneurs to plan effectively, ensuring long-term profitability and growth.

Introduction
Cleavage is the process of cellular division without growth. It is also called segmentation division and it follows immediately after fertilization. By the end of this process, single cell zygote is transformed into multi-cellular stage called blastula. Daughter cells are called blastomeres. All divisions are mitotic and occur consequently. Ratio of nucleus to cytoplasm is very low at beginning but later they resemble somatic cell. Cleavage division always start at animal pole. Cleavage can be classified as:
1. Holoblastic/Total cleavage: Whole fertilized ovum is involved in production of blastomere. It is also called complete cleavage.
a) Equal: All blastomeres are of equal size. E.g. mammals
b) Unequal: Some blastomeres at vegetal pole are larger. E.g. amphibians
2. Meroblastic/Partial cleavage: When deutoplasm is abundant and only a part of fertilized ovum is involved in cleavage, it is called meroblastic cleavage.
a) Discoidal: Cleavage is confined to the germinal disc i.e. at animal pole. E.g. birds and reptiles.
b) Superficial: Cleavage is confined to the peripheral margin of cytoplasm. E.g. arthropods.
Dividing continuously, embryo attains a stage of 16-32 cells. 16-celled stage is called early/uncompact morula and 32-celled stage is called compact morula. This stage is called morula due to its close resemblance to mulberry fruit. Structure is surrounded by zona pellucida.
After morula stage, fluid accumulation begins and blastomeres are gradually pushed to the periphery. As fluid accumulation progresses further, it leads to formation of large cavity in central part of embryo known as blastocoels and morula stage is now transformed into blastula/blastocyst stage. Blastomeres now arrange themselves as single celled outer layer called trophoblast and small group of cells at animal pole called inner cell mass (ICM). Trophoblasts give rise to fetal membranes and will help embryo in its attachment to uterine wall (implantation). ICM gives rise to all organs of body. Development of blastula is called blastulation.

West Indian Cherry is a nutritive fruit mainly grown in semi dry and tropical parts of the country. It is native to West Indies and Central and South America and distributed in Southern Florida, Hawaii and other tropical and sub tropical regions of the world. West Indian Cherry received considerable attention in the 1950’s in its area of distribution because of its extremely high vitamin C content (2000-4600 mg / 100 gm of edible matter). It has been considered to be far superior to guava (Psidium guajava L.) as a potential source of vitamin c and it is richer than even the Indian gooseberry (Phyllanthus emblica L.), which is reported to contain roughly 800 mg of ascorbic acid per 100 g of edible matter. One fruit the size of a large cherry can furnish a man’s daily requirement of this vitamin. Thus the fruit of West Indian Cherry can rightly be called as the “pill of nature’s vitamin”. The fruit can be utilized for the production of crystalline vitamin C. The fruit is also rich in vitamin A, iron and can be consumed fresh or can be used in preparation of sherbet, ice cream, jelly and baby foods, fruit nectars and soft drinks. The juice can also be used to fortify ascorbic acid content of various other products and fruit juices to improve their nutritive value. It can withstand mild frost and drought. Fruits are good source of vitamin C and bark yields tannin (Chadha, 2001).

India’s Northeast region — one of natural beauty and cultural richness — is both a mega-biodiversity area as well as a “hot-spot” for genetic erosion. The rural population is around 82 per cent and depends largely on agriculture and allied sectors for work and income security. The forests harbour 8000 out of the 15,000 species of flowering plants occurring in the country. Of about 1300 species of orchids reported from India, the Northeast has the highest concentration with about 700 species. The species richness is highest in Arunachal Pradesh where over 5000 flowering plants occur and the lowest in Tripura with 1600 species. Bamboo is the lifeline of the Northeast and 63 out of 136 species found in India occur in this region. Sadly, however, 25 species of bamboo fall under the rare and endangered category. The region is also home to the eri and muga silkworms. The yak and the mithun are unique animals which are threatened by the spread of non-edible invasive species like Lantana, Eupatorium and Mekenia. The cultural diversity of this region is well known, with 225 tribes out of 450 in the country living here. 

Introduction

Since the onset of human civilization molluscs have a tremendous impact on Indian tradition and economy. In India, molluscs have been in great demand as ornaments, currency, as popular panacea for illnesses and as mascot for ward off evil spirits in olden days. Now, molluscs have assumedgreater significance in our industrial, technological and aesthetic aspects of life, in addition to edible utility. Several species of gastropods and bivalves are traditionally fished for food and shell from time immemorial. About 80,000 - 1, 00,000 species of molluscs are recorded from the world over and a total of 3271 species are recorded from India. They are represented in 220 families and 591 general and the spectrum comprise of 1900 gastropods,1100 bivalves,210 cephalopods,41 polyplacophores and 20 scaphopods (edible and ornamental) and 14 species of cephalopods are exploited on commercial basis in India(Appukkuttan et al.,1989). It is difficult to categories shells satisfactorily according to their uses as many are collected for several purposes. The main categories are shown in the Table-1.

Nanosensors are any biological, chemical, or sugery sensory points used to convey information about nanoparticles to the macroscopic world. Their use mainly include various medicinal purposes and as gateways to building other nanoproducts, such as computer chips that work at the nanoscaleand nanorobots. Presently, there are several ways proposed to make nanosensors, including Top-down and bottom-up design, top-downlithography, bottom-upassembly, and molecular self-assembly.

Predicted applications

Medicinal uses of nanosensors mainly revolve aroundthe potential of nanosensors to accurately identify particular cells or places in the body in need. By measuring changes in volume, concentration, displacement and velocity, gravitational,electrical, and magneticforces, pressure, or temperature of cells in a body, nanosensors may be able to distinguish between and recognize certain cells, most notably those of cancer, at the molecular level in order to deliver medicine or monitor development to specific places in the body. In addition, they may be able to detect macroscopic variations from outside the body and communicate these changes to other nanoproducts working within the body.