eChapters

Biotechnology provides significant opportunities and greater effects in horticulture, where even minor changes such as quality, colour, aroma, flavour, structure, disease-pest resistance and postharvest behaviour bring tremendous achievements commercially. Tissue culture, genetic engineering, molecular breeding, biofertilizers, biopesticides and postharvest biotechnology are important aspects of biotechnology in horticulture such as fruit, vegetable, ornamental, spice, medicinal, aromatic and plantation crops.

Tissue Culture

Tissue culture is the true reality of the plant biotechnology. The annual demand of tissue cultured production constitutes nearly 10 per cent of the total world biotech business, amounting to 15 billion US dollars. The global production of tissue culture industry is expanding @ 15% per annum (Chadha, 2000). In India, more than 130 tissue culture units are presently producing > 300 million plantlets per annum (Choudhury and Tejaswini, 2000).

Gene silencing is the suppression of gene expression through nucleotide sequence-specific interactions that are mediated by RNA. Many manifestations of RNA silencing-RNA interference (RNAi) in animals, quelling in fungi and post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS) in plants, appear to be related. RNA silencing is experimentally activated by double-stranded RNA (ds RNA) and is used as a powerful technique for specific inhibition of gene expression in a variety of organisms. In a natural context, ds RNA may be produced from rearranged loci by transcription from converging promoters or by host-or viral-encoded RNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RdRP). A key component of RNA silencing is 21-23 nt RNA known as short interfering RNA (Si RNA). In Drosophila, the siRNA is derived from ds RNA by the action of an RNase-III like enzyme named DICER. The siRNA guides a multi-subunit endnuclease, referred to as the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) and it specifically degrades RNA that share sequence similarly with the ds RNA.

If the 1990s were the decade of genomics, the first ten years of the new century are set to become the decade of proteomics. For the first time, the technologies of proteomics make it possible to generate quantitative protein expression data on a scale and sensitivity comparable to that achieved at the genetic level. This advance has major implications for our understanding of cellular organisation in health and disease and for pharmaceutical and agricultural biotechnology. Indeed, proteomics is already yielding important findings, across a wide range of applications. Most proteomics research, however, is directed towards the more proximal goal of investigating protein expression and function under specified physiological conditions.

The rapid evolution of proteomics has continued during the past years with a series of innovations in the core technologies of two-dimensional electrophoresis and mass spectrometry, and a diversity of productive research programmes. Well annotated proteomics databases are now emerging in a number of fields to provide a platform for systematic research, with particularly promising progress in clinical applications such as cardiology and oncology. Large-scale quantitative research, comparable in power and sensitivity to that achieved for gene expression, is thus becoming a reality at the protein level.

Advancement of both biological sciences and computer technology gave birth today’s one of the hottest area known as bioinformatics. Gradually bioinformatics analysis has become an essential component to the continued improvement and development of any kind of biological research work. It has various applications in medicine, biotechnology, agriculture etc. Some of the applications of bioinformatics related to biological information analysis are as follows [1]
    
·    Information related to bio-molecules can be mapped (e.g.), the sequences can be parsed to find sites where so-called “restriction enzymes” will cut them.
    
·    Sequences can be compared, usually by aligning corresponding segments and looking for matching and mismatching letters in their sequences. Genes or proteins that are sufficiently similar are likely to be related and are therefore said to be “homologous” to each other.
    
·    If a homologous exists then a newly discovered protein may be modeled - that is 3D structure of the gene product can be predicted without doing laboratory experiments.
    
·    Bioinformatics is used to attempt to predict the function of actual gene products.

Soil is formed by disintegration and decomposition of rocks, minerals and organic matter, Soil is a habitant for plant growth and serves as a storehouse of water and food nutrients for plants, Soil is not same everywhere and varies morphologically, physically, chemically and mineralogically from one point to another both in horizontal and vertical directions. Development of soil informatics is necessary to classify the soils, to assess the productivity of soils for various crop productions and to use the soil for various purposes such as land capability classification, soil irrigability classification, soil rating and soil mapping.

Morphologically soil may appear red, yellow, black, brown or ashy in colour. Soil may vary from sandy to clayey in texture. Depending upon the nutrient reserve capacity, the soil may be fertile or infertile. On the basis of climate, a soil may be classified as laterite soil. Red earth and red loam soil, podzol soil or desert soil.

Different kinds of soil contain minerals of various types and amounts and so exhibit distinct physio co-chemical properties. Although various methods have been used in the past to classify the soils, the most modern and scientific methods is based on dominants pedogenic processes acting on a place to from a soil. The new method of soil classification has two important characteristics-Firstly soil classification is based on certain diagnostic parameters which could be estimated quantatively, and secondly depending on diagnostic parameters, a scientific method is being followed to classify a soil from higher to lower levels such as order, suborder, great group, subgroup, family and series.

Bioinformatics is a multidisciplinary approach that combines computational and biological expertise to analyze biological data to advance research and development and it drew public attention with the announcement of the draft sequence of human genome by the then US President, Bill Clinton along with Craig Venter and Francis Collins in 2000. Bioinformatics and life sciences research are gaining attention in the government, industries and academic sectors. India was the first country in the world to establish a biotechnology information system (BTIS) network in 1987 through the Dept. of Biotechnology and created an infrastructure that enables it to harness biotechnology through the application of bioinformatics. Through this branch of science, biological data are acquired, stored and then analyzed. Bioinformatics can be used to store huge bioscience data for their future uses. By exploring computational tools, databases and new strategies for pests and diseases, resistant genes can be identified and plants with desired traits can be engineered to enhance agricultural productivity. Bioinformatics can be utilized in two ways for agriculture, viz., (i) at molecular level for application in breeding strategies and (ii) agri-informatics for land use planning, farmers window, early warning system, impact assessment and environmental applications.

Bioinformatics is a recently emerged frontier discipline, which helps in analyzing biological data with the help of information technology and statistical software packages. In a broader sense, bioinformatics is the application of computer technology in management of biological information. This interdisciplinary scientific tool having no barriers between different branches of science like biology, biotechnology, mathematics, computer science and information technology, has great influence on advanced bio-science research, particularly dealing with genes, proteins and cell biology.

Bioinformatics is the branch of study that deals with the use of information technology (IT) for managing data of biological science. Bioinformatics drew public attention with the announcement of the draft sequence of human genome by the then US President Bill Clinton along with Craig Venter and Francis Collins in 2000 (Uma and Sathyanathan, 2004).

1.    ———— is a synthetic antimicrobial drug against M. tuberculosis.
    A.    Penicillin    B.    Tetracycline
    C.    Erythromycin    D.    Isoniazid
Ans.    D.
2.    Which of the antibiotic is not used as a food preservative ?
    A.    Pimaricin    B.    Nisin
    C.    Tylosin    D.    b-lactam antibiotic
Ans.    D.
3.    Which of the following bacteria is susceptible to thiophen-2-carboxylic acid hydrazide?
    A.    M. bovis    B.    M. tuberculosis
    C.    M. chelonei    D.    M. fortuitum
Ans.    A.

INTRODUCTION

Persimmon is a subtropical fruit, originated in China and popular in Western countries. It is the national fruit of Japan. However, only four species are cultivated viz., Diospyros kaki L., Diospyros lotus L., Diospyros virginiana L. and Diospyros oleifera Cheng. Persimmon resembles ripened tomatoes, thus it attract the consumers. The ripe fruit is sweet and has admirable flavor.

NUTRITIVE AND CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE

Persimmon fruits contain 79 per cent water, 0.7 per cent pectin, 0.4 per cent each of protein and crude fibre per 100 g. They are also rich in vitamin A (2710 IU) and vitamin C (11 mg of ascorbic acid). There are two types viz., astringent and non- astringent cultivars, astringency is due to water soluble tannins (kaki- tannin) present in the flesh of fruit and the level falls down at maturity stage and in non astringent types it completely disappear at maturity.
Fresh persimmon fruits are used in certain dishes, in jelly, jam and fruit peel/ skin is added to pickles for imparting orange colour. Dried kaki is a traditional dessert in New Year festivals especially in Japan. Tannin is used as a mordant for protecting wood, as an antidote against snake venoms and as a control agent for viral infections in plants.

INTRODUCTION

The modern cultivated strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Duch.) is one of the most widely distributed soft fruits of the world due to its genotypic diversity, highly heterozygous nature and broad range of environmental adaptations. It is one of the most delicious and refreshing soft fruit. Its plant is cherished in gardens as well as in commercial fields for its beautiful red fruit that has tantalizing aroma. Being nutritionally rich, strawberry has now become an important table fruit of millions of people around the globe. Its fruit is different from other fruits as their seeds are produced on outside of the fruit. Strawberry is unique fruit crop, which gives quicker and very high return per unit area on the capital investment, as the crop is ready for harvesting within six months of planting.

The strawberry fruits are highly perishable in nature and need quick disposal after harvest thus it has remarkable scope for its cultivation near the towns, cities and processing units where the fruits can be utilized or processed immediately after harvest. Over the last few years, continuous progress has been made in strawberry cultivation due to the use of micropropagation technique for plant propagation, day neutral cultivar, protected cultivation for multiple crops in a year and low tunnels in open field, which are useful for exploiting the tremendous potential of this small fruit crop.

INTRODUCTION

Prunus avium, commonly called wild cherry, sweet cherry is a species of cherry, a flowering plant in the rose family Rosaceae. Cherry is the fruit of many plants of the genus Prunus, and is a fleshy drupe (stone fruit) and packed with healthy nutrients and excellent antioxidants. Cherries are mostly eaten as dessert fruit or more conveniently in the brined, frozen or canned state. The cherry fruits of commerce usually are obtained from a limited number of species such as cultivars of the sweet cherry, Prunus avium. The name 'cherry' also refers to the cherry tree, and is sometimes applied to almonds and visually similar flowering trees in the genus Prunus, as in "ornamental cherry", "cherry blossom", etc. Wild cherry may refer to any of the cherry species growing outside of cultivation, although Prunus avium is often referred to specifically by the name "wild cherry" in the British Isles. Basically, cherries are native to Europe and Asia regions. De Candole reported that the cherry first grew wild in northern Persia and the Russian provinces south of the Caucasus. From there, it spread rapidly because they are attractive to birds; hence the name Prunus avium L. or bird cherry.

INTRODUCTION

Kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa Chev.) also known as Chinese gooseberry, China’s Miracle Fruit and The Horticultural Wonder of New Zealand, belongs to family Actinidiaceae. It is native to Yangtze valley in north-west Hupeh and Szechuan provinces of China. The kiwifruit of international commerce are large – fruited selections of Actinidia deliciosa Planch and Actinidia deliciosa (A. Chev.) 
C F Liang and A. R. Ferguson. The name kiwifruit was derived from the kiwi, a flightless bird and New Zealand’s national symbol. Although this fruit vine originated in China, yet its full economic potential was exploited by the New Zealanders, which accounts for over 70 per cent of world trade. In other countries of the world, its cultivation gained momentum after 1960’s and now is cultivated on a commercial scale in USA, Italy, China, Japan, France, Germany, Chile and Australia

Kiwifruit is a perennial climbing or scrambling vine. Fruits are rusty brown with hairy surface and looks like a sapota fruit. Flesh is light green in colour with decorative pattern of lighter colored rays radiating from the center and embedded in between are many small, soft and dark seed. It is mostly eaten as fresh fruit or combined with other fruits in salad and desserts.

INTRODUCTION

The cultivated almond (Prunus dulcis (Miller). D.A. Webb; Syn. Prunus amygdalus L. Batsch.) known as “Badam” in hindi is an important stone fruit tree species producing highly nourishing nuts of great medicinal value, called as almond. Badam Pappu (Telugu), Badam Paruppu (Tamil), Baadami (Kannada), Badam kayu (Malayalam) are other local names for almond in India. Surprisingly, the almond is not a true nut member, but rather is actually a family member of stone fruits such as nectarines, peaches, plums and cherries. For this reason, some people refer to an almond as a fruit. It is a medium sized deciduous tree belonging to Rosaceae family which produces edible seeds in hard outer shell and is cultivated mainly between latitudes 36o and 45o N. The almond is the most favoured nut with Indians and is very much relished by people. Spain , USA, Itlay, China, Iran, Greece, Tunisia, Turkey, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Algeria, Morroco, France, Persia and Syria are the important almond growing countries. In India it is mainly cultivated in the Kashmir valley and some parts of Himachal Pradesh.

INTRODUCTION

Persian walnut (Juglans regia L.) is of great importance across worldwide where nuts are harvested from wild stands, backyard gardens and rarely from commercial orchards that vary considerably in their size and degree of management. Nuts are collected for home consumption, sale at local roadside stands and markets and for shipping to cities. Walnut trees are further utilized for their high quality timber to make a wide array of products. The leaves, bark and other plant parts are used for medicinal remedies and trees are grown and maintained for soil conservation purposes (Mamadjanov, 2006b). A diverse mix of seedlings, local selections, and advanced cultivars are grown for nut production, many with unknown origins, including some of which are the direct result of selection from the wild.

INTRODUCTION

Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.), belongs to the family Rosaceae and is one of the most important fruit crop of mid hills and dry temperate regions of India. It was introduced in India by the European settlers and Missionaries in the late 19th century. Cultivated apricot has its origin in North-Eastern China, whereas wild apricot, popularly known as zardalu, appears to be indigenous to India. It grows wild in hills of Shimla and Kinnaur districts of Himachal Pradesh. Fruit is delicious, rich in vitamin A and contains more carbohydrates, proteins, phosphorous and niacin than many other common fruits. Besides its use as dessert, it is also canned and dried. Fruit is processed into jam, nectar and squash. The kernels are either sweet or bitter, depending upon the variety. The sweet kernels are used as a cheap substitute for almonds in pastries and confectionery. The bitter kernels are used for oil extraction. In India, apricot is grown commercially in the hills of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh and to a limited extent in north eastern hills. Some drying type apricots are being grown in the dry temperate areas of Kinnaur and Lahaul Spiti in Himachal Pradesh and Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir.

INTRODUCTION

The European plum (Prunus domestica L.) is the most important plum species grown in different countries in the world. The Japanese plum (Prunus salicina Lindl.) is the next important species grown in many Asian countries. It is more vigorous, productive, precocious in bearing and more resistant to diseases than the European plum. The Japanese plum a temperate fruit is unique amongst the stone fruits. It is a strong small growing tree, performing well as major crop of hills and considered as important minor fruit crop in north India. Its low chilling varieties comes into the market when the other crops are scarce and find little competition in the market. The fruit growers are now preferred to grow Japanese plum on account of giving higher yield and excellent return per unit area. It is successfully grown in temperate zone and subtropical climate of northern Indian states. Moreover, it is preferred as filler tree in permanent orchards of mango, litchi and pear. It start bearing after 2-3 years of planting and giving good economic return to the growers during pre-bearing period of permanent fruit crops.

INTRODUCTION

Peach [Prunus persica (L.) Batsch] is a temperate origin crop but well adapted to sub-tropical regions. It is an important fruit crop of Rosaceae family and is the third most important temperate tree fruit species behind apples and pears. Trees of most peach cultivars require from 100–1000 hours of chilling.

NUTRITIVE AND CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE

Peaches are good source of sugars, vitamins and minerals. It has a rich source of vitamins A and C and also contains potassium and fibre. The fruit has over 80% water and one average sized peach have 7% of the dietary fibre which is required each day. It helps in maintaining healthy vision, skin care, nervous system, healthy bones, and teeth. It has anti-aging properties and also helps in detoxification, as well as improving digestion and cellular health. It has a wealth of essential nutrients and antioxidants which are valuable during pregnancy and it helps in strengthening the immune system. Peaches contain carotenoids and anthocyanins which have antioxidant properties and act as a protective agent against various problems i.e inflammation, cancer, atherosclerosis, obesity, cholesterol and other circulatory problems (Prior and Cao 2000; Wargovich 2000).

INTRODUCTION

Pear is one of the important fruit crops of temperate regions of India after apple. It is one of the few fruit crops that is adaptable to wide range of climatic conditions. It belongs to genus Pyrus and family Rosaceae, subfamily Pomoideae. The pear belong to three categories i.e. European pear (Pyrus communis L.), Japanese or Asian pear (Pyrus pyrifolia (Burm F.) Nakai, var. Culta) and their hybrids (Pyrus communis x Pyrus pyrifolia) are grown commercially in different parts of the country. Asian or Japanese pears are crisp and juicy with some having apple like flavour. European pears are very soft and have melting texture. Japanese pear has gained importance as a commercial crop in Northern India. The area under this pear has been increasing due to its high yield potential and good economic returns.

INTRODUCTION

The apple ( Malus x domestica Borkh.) is an important temperate fruit, grown in areas experiencing cold winters, frost free springs and mild summer. The genus Malus has 25 species. Apple is considered best premier table fruit of the world. The commercially grown cultivars of apple are sweet, juicy and have a pleasing grainy texture. Apple is the most important crop or cash crop of hilly states and occupy 49 per cent of the total area under fruit crop.

Nutritive and Cultural Significance

Apple fruit is in rich source of proteins, minerals, potassium, thiamine, vitamin B6 and carbohydrates. Apple fruits contains sugars (sucrose, glucose, fructose), dextrins, starch, hemicellulose, cellulose and pectin substances. Maleic acid is the major acid of apple fruits. The fruit contain Carbohydrates 14.5 per cent, protein 0.3 per cent, potassium 110 mg, phosphorus 10 mg, iron 0.12 mg and calcium 6 mg per 100 g of fruit. Among the vitamins, it contain vitamin C 10-40 mg, vitamin A 90-120 1U, thiamine (B1) 0.017 mg, Riboflavin 0.026 mg per 100g of fruit. Apple fruit contains 86 per cent water content.

INTRODUCTION

Fig  (Ficus carica L.) is commonly known as Anjeer. It has a luscious taste as a fresh fruit. The fruit of fig have been prized over centuries for the medicinal and dietary properties. The figs are consumed fresh, dried, preserved, candied, jam and canned. 

NUTRITIVE AND CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE

Medicinal Uses:The latex is widely applied on warts, skin ulcers and sores, and taken as a purgative and vermifuge, but with considerable risk. In Latin America, figs are much employed as folk remedies. A decoction of the fruits is gargled to relieve sore throat. Figs boiled in milk are repeatedly packed against swollen gums. Similarly, the fruits are much used as poultices on tumors and other abnormal growths. The leaf decoction is taken as a remedy for diabetes and calcifications in the kidneys and liver. Fresh and dried figs have long been appreciated for their laxative action. The food value of edible portion of fig (Morton, 1997) is given in detail in Table 1.