eChapters

4.1 Introduction

In many surveys, information on an auxiliary (supplementary, ancillary or apriori) variable x, which is highly (positively or negatively)correlated with the variable y under study, is readily available and can be used for improving the sampling design. Stratified sampling and probability proportional to size (p.p.s) schemes are two examples of improved sampling designs, in which the use of data on auxiliary variable has been made. However in both the schemes, it implies that the information on auxiliary variable on individual sampling units is available prior to presentation of sampling design. In case, data on auxiliary variable for individual sampling units are not available but only the aggregate value for all units of auxiliary variable is available, the two schemes can not be used. In such a situation, the aggregate data on auxiliary variable can still be used at the time of estimation of parameters under consideration, provided the data on auxiliary variable for the sampled units can be easily obtained at the time of recording the values of the study variable.

Introduction

Globally, India takes pride of being one of the world’s largest producers of horticultural and agricultural commodities. The rapid increase in the area under intensive cultivation of crops, introduction of high yielding varieties, lack of natural enemy load of the pests and changing climatic conditions is largely responsible for the severe pest depredations. Pest management in agriculture is a challenging task in the context of increasing agricultural productivity without upsetting the ecological balance and deteriorating the environment. Use of agrochemicals in agriculture though played a significant role to boost the agricultural production is posing enormous problems like environmental pollution, pest resistance, pest resurgence, toxicity hazards, secondary pest outbreaks, residues in feeds, foods, soil and water, destruction of biodiversity of useful natural enemies and some social economic and political problems. In response, there has been increased demand for alternative and selective pest control agents. Biopesticides are advantageous due to their target specificity, eco-safety, no development of resistance, reduced number of applications, yield and quality improvement, higher acceptability and value of produce for exports and suitability for rural areas.

Abstract

The substantial loss in the shielding ozone layer has resulted in an increase in the solar ultraviolet radiation (UVR) on the Earth’s surface, which is detrimental for all living organisms ranging from prokaryotes to eukaryotes, including humans. This has augmented the scientific concern and interest in searching for the photoprotective compounds from diverse organisms. Cyanobacteria, the primitive O2-evolving photosynthetic prokaryotes are solely dependent upon the solar radiation for their energy requirement and thereby have to always face the UV-B stress. UVR affects cyanobacteria either directly or indirectly by inducing oxidative stress. In response, they have evolved the capacity to synthesize, accumulate and metabolize a variety of UV-absorbing compounds such as, mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs), scytonemin, carotenoids, biopterin glucoside, as a strategy to reduce the direct and indirect damaging effects of UVR.

E    :    Reduction potential.    
Early induced responses    :    The early induced responses or early nonadaptive responses are a series of host defense responses that are triggered by infectious agents early in infection. They are distinct from innate immunity because there is an inductive phase, and from adaptive immunity in that they do not operate by clonal selection of rare antigen-specific lymphocytes.

Coriander is used by man since long as coriander seeds were found in Egyptian tombs of 960 BC. Further, Persia grew coriander 3,000 years ago and it added fragrance to Hanging Gardens of Babylon. In 3^rd century BC, Romans also found coriander seed as an excellent seasoning for popular foods.

Besides seeds, fresh leaves are being used for garnishing of food in many Latin American, Spanish, Russian, Chinese and Indian dishes since long. Fresh coriander leaves are also known as Chinese Parsely. In India, coriander seed is used almost daily in scores of curries for flavouring and leaves for garnishing. Coriander is a native of Mediterranean region.

An agricultural weeder is a tool designed to remove weeds from fields or gardens. It can be used manually or attached to machinery like tillers and power weeders. Weeding is necessary to eliminate unwanted plants that compete with crops, ensuring better growth and profitability. Effective weed management is crucial in crop production, as weeds can reduce yields by stealing nutrients and attracting harmful pests. In recent years, research has focused on non-chemical methods and environmentally friendly alternatives to herbicides for weed control. Mechanical weeding is often the most cost-effective solution. Tools like rotary weeders, mechanical hand weeders, and wetland weeders are generally effective, with wetland versions gaining popularity due to their ability to function in shallow water. These tools uproot weeds and bury them in the mud through their pull-and-push action, making them both safe and eco-friendly. Weeding should be done at least three times during a growing season, with early weeding being the most effective for completely eliminating young weeds.
FUNCTIONS OF WEEDING EQUIPMENT
Secondary tillage equipment is often used for weed management. Weeders help control weeds between planted crops or before sowing. Some weeding machines use mechanical methods to remove unwanted plants without the need for chemicals.
Usage Instructions
• Early weeding is essential: Perform the weeding within 20 days after sowing.
• Delayed weeding can lead to competition between paddy and weeds, harming the crop.
• Move the weeding machine back and forth between rows.
• Conduct a second round of weeding after 15 days, and if possible, a third.

The global economy has adversely been affected to a considerable extent due to weather related disasters which are not uncommon in the recent past due to global warming and climate change. It is true in the case of the Indian economy too. The year 2010 was the warmest year ever recorded, followed by 2009 in India. The year 2015 was the warmest year globally. Model simulations indicate that a marked increase in rainfall and temperature over India would be seen during the current century. The maximum expected increase in rainfall is likely to be 10–30% over the Central India. Temperatures are likely to increase between 2 and 3^oC by the end of 2100 A.D. Greater number of high surges and increased occurrence of cyclones in post monsoon period along with increased maximum wind speed are also expected along the East Coast of the Country. As a result, the occurrence of floods and droughts, cold and heat waves adversely affected the foodgrains production to a large extent across the Country in one or other region as seen in 2014, 2012, 2009, 2004, 2002 and 1987. It is true in the case of plantation crops also, which are predominantly grown in the Humid Tropics like Kerala (8°15` N and 12°50`N latitudes and between 74°50`E and 77°30`E longitudes). As seen in previous chapters, summer drought and heavy rains including waterlogging during monsoon period is a threat to plantation crops production in the Humid Tropics to a considerable extent. Waterlogging and floods due to excess rains could be minimised by providing surface and subsurface drainage facilities in plantation gardens which will improve the soil health and nutritional status, in turn yields can be increased in plantation crops.

Abstract

Leadership behavior is seen in every group of social animals like elephant, honey bee, human being, etc. Initially people thought this behavior as inborn character and only few lucky people possessed it. But now it has been proved that this character can be developed by interested people through systematic training. In every family parent are playing the role of either leader or manager and being a role model gradually transmitting this behavior to their children from childhood itself. Training begins at home of every successful leader.  In this article the characteristic features of leaders, style of their functioning, leadership theories and the difference between a leader and a manager are discussed in details. Important tips have been mentioned to follow for becoming a good and successful leader.

Access to information and improved communication is a crucial requirement for sustainable agricultural development. Modern communication technologies when applied to conditions in rural areas can help improve communication, increase participation, disseminate information and share knowledge and skills. It is being said that “Cyber Extension” would be the major form of technology dissemination in the near future. However it is observed that the rural population still have difficulty in accessing crucial information in order to make timely decisions. It is essential that information availability is demand driven rather than supply driven. The challenge is not only to improve the accessibility of communication technology to the rural population but also to improve its relevance to local development.

The advent of INTERNET on communication scenario offers enormous potential for two-way on-line communication between distant parties via the telecommunication and computer network spread over the entire globe. The world is rapidly shrinking to a ‘global village’ which some courageously even call a ‘global family’. The merger of communication (audio and video) and computer technology has suddenly made this combination so powerful that no sector of human activity can afford to ignore it. Right from high security defense systems, space research, engineering and educational applications the INTERNET has found users in petty shopkeepers and small service agencies. In countries like Singapore, you can book a taxi via e-mail and the concerned taxi driver is able to confirm your booking, while he is still driving.

Quality has emerged as a decisive source of competitive advantage in the global apparel industry. Liberalization and increasing international competition have encouraged apparel manufacturers to adopt quality-management practices throughout their operations. Sustained quality must be maintained from the procurement of fabrics and other raw materials through manufacturing, finishing and delivery. Although finance, labour and resources are important, they cannot ensure long-term growth when customers are dissatisfied. Modern consumers have numerous choices and expect dependable products at reasonable prices. Consequently, manufacturers must provide consistent quality, value for money and customer satisfaction to build product confidence, brand loyalty and sustainable business growth.

I&D    :    Incision and drainage.     
I&E    :    Internal and external.     
I&O    :    Intake and output.     
I.P. (IP)    :    Intraperitoneal .    
I.V. (IV)    :    Intravenous.

Abnormal milk: It is milk that is not smooth and homogenous but is flaky, ropy, stringy, slimy, watery, discoloured or bad flavoured (Plate 1 & 2).

Abrassive peeler: It is equipment comprising a rotating drum lined with carborandum (an abrasive material) in which certain vegetables like potato and ginger are tumbled and exposed to the abrasive action of the carborandum lining, thereby facilitating separation of peel from the vegetables (Plate 3).

Absinthe: It is green liqueur which is flavored with wormwood, anise, and other aromatic herbs (Plate 4). Its commercial production is banned in ma ny countries for health concerns.

Absolute alcohol: It is water free alcohol. It contains atleast 99 per cent pure alcohol by weight and obtained by digesting rectified spirit over quicklime and redistilling the same.

Absolute density: It is the ratio of weight of certain volume of a substance at 1oC to that of weight of same volume of water at 4oC.

Absolute humidity: Absolute humidity is defined as kg of water vapour per kg of dry air at a given temperature and pressure. Absolute humidity is the mass of water vapour divided by the mass of dry air in a certain volume of air at a specific temperature. The warmer air absorbs more water than cooler one. Absolute humidity is the measure of water vapour or moisture in the air, regardless of temperature.

Absolute pressure: It is equal to atmospheric pressure minus vacuum pressure (Plate 5).

Absolute zero: It is a theoretical temperature characterized by complete absence of heat and motion and equivalent to exactly -273.15°C or -459.67°F (Plate 6).

Introduction

Over the last two decades the Land and Water Development Division (AGL) has been at the forefront of the development and application of computer-based systems to analyse data and generate information to support decisions on various land and water issues . Separate soil and land and water systems have been developed. The soil and land systems focus on methodologies and tools for the assessment of land resources potentials at global, regional and national and sub-national levels. The water systems concern irrigation water use and management at field level and water resources assessment at regional and national levels.

AGL has been cooperating with various units within FAO and numerous international agencies and national institutions in developing and applying the systems.

Initially, in the late seventies and early eighties, the systems were developed for mainframe and mini-computers. From the late eighties they were gradually adapted to microcomputers. At the same time computer tools for managing spatial data, including geographic information systems (GIS), remote sensing and global positioning systems (GPS) were introduced. Since the last few years the availability of networked PC workstations, rapid application development environment and multimedia tools have opened an era of completely new possibilities in the development and application of the systems.

Saccharides: A monosaccharide sugar or combination of sugars is called saccharides.

Saccharification: The process of breaking a complex carbohydrate (starch or cellulose) into its monosaccharide components is called saccharification.

Saccharimeter: A device (polarimeter) used for measuring the amount of sugar in a solution is called saccharimeter. It is also known as saccharometer. It is a hydrometer with a special scale.

Saccharin: A crystalline compound C7 H5 NO3 S that is unrelated to the carbohydrates, is several hundred times sweeter than sucrose, and is used as a calorie free sweetener.

Saccharomyces: It is one of the genus (Saccharomyces) of the family Saccharomycetaceae and is usually unicellular yeasts (brewer’s yeast) that are distinguished by their sparse or absent mycelium and reproduced asexually by budding.

Safe food: Food that provide maximum nutrition and quality while revealing a minimal hazard to public health and they assume any risk present to be minimal.

Safety: Safety is a component of quality. Many experts believe that food safety is the most important quality component since a lack of safety can result in serious injury and even death of the consumer.

3.1 Introduction

The sun emits electromagnetic radiation, which is referred to as solar radiation. Every location on the Earth’s surface receives some sunlight during the course of the year, but the amount of solar radiation varies. On a daily basis, we see much less energy from the sun than it emits and incident upon the earth. In an hour and a half, the amount of sunlight that reaches the surface of the earth is enough to provide enough energy for an entire year. 

8.1 Introduction

The management of greenhouse environments has become crucial in modern agriculture due to increasing concerns about climate change and the urgent need for sustainable farming practices. Greenhouses, also known as “controlled environment agriculture” facilities, have revolutionized the way we grow food by extending the growing season and allowing us to cultivate a wide range of plants in various climates. They achieve this by precisely regulating environmental elements such as temperature, humidity, light, and carbon dioxide concentration, which are all crucial for optimizing plant growth and yield.

Drought, a recurring and often devastating feature of climate variability, presents a unique challenge due to its slow onset, complex nature, and farreaching consequences. Unlike hazards with clear event boundaries, drought manifests across diverse spatial and temporal scales and impacts nearly every facet of the environment and human activity. Effectively understanding and managing this phenomenon necessitates an equally comprehensive approach: drought monitoring. This chapter introduces the essential concepts and methodologies underpinning this critical field, highlighting the remarkable breadth required to capture the full picture of drought conditions. • The scope of drought monitoring is inherently vast. Geographically, it spans from tracking localized water stress affecting a single farm or watershed to assessing conditions across entire regions, nations, and continents. Temporally, monitoring efforts must consider short-term deficits unfolding over weeks or months (critical for agriculture) as well as long-term hydrological imbalances developing over seasons, years, or even decades (impacting reservoirs and groundwater). Understanding current conditions crucially relies on comparing them against a deep historical context, requiring decades of baseline data

Potato is one of the major non cereal food crops in the world and ranks fourth after rice, wheat and maize. Due to its high production potential per unit area and time, the crop has been recorded for sustaining millions of lives during the times of war and hunger. Native of South America, this crop was introduced into India in early seventieth century. Currently India ranks 3rd for area and 2nd for production in the world [AICRP (Potato) Bulletin No. 2]. Potato is generally grown as rabi crop during October to December in gangetic plains of India but in hills it is grown almost throughout the year as commercial cultivation. In some states like Karnataka, it is generally grown during kharif season.

Abstract

Nitrogen is the most essential nutrient for all plants and is also the major limiting factor in plant productivity. High yielding varieties of all crops are responsive to nitrogen but its ever-increasing use has shown detrimental impact on the environment along with extremely low use efficiency. Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) in crop plants depends on various internal and external factors, which are dealt in detail. There has been a significant interest in genetic engineering of the crops to improve NUE. The use of biotechnological interventions by manipulating genes of the nitrogen utilization pathway to improve NUE has not been very successful. But transgenics/mutants with modified capacities for nitrate uptake, assimilation and remobilization have enhanced our understanding of the genetic control of NUE. In both cellular, and at whole plant level the mechanisms involved in N remobilization from the senescing organs towards the grain have recently gained importance but their understanding is still preliminary. Recent evidences have shown that grain filling during later stages of crop growth is supported by N recycling.

It is well known that lowering the temperature of food stuffs reduces microbiological and biochemical spoilage and thus extending the shelf life of the product. In addition, it is generally agreed upon that the reaction rate is reduced by half by lowering the temperature by 10°C. Though low temperature preservation process has been recognized as a preservation technique for several hundred years, the major developments in its utilization have occurred only in the last century.