eChapters

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants are well known for their secondary metabolites which are alternatively called as active principles responsible for curing of diseases and disorders. India is a biodiversity rich country belongs within 12 mega diversity zones of the world and possesses four biodiversity hot spots, 8 phyto-geographic regions and 10 vegetation zones (Khandekar and Srivastava, 2014). This subcontinent holds 47000 different species of plants out of which 8000 plants are medicinal in nature (Hamilton, 2004, Owolabi et al., 2007). High rate of endemism and 426 habitats for specific species are the unique resource of the country (BSI, 2009; Khandekar and Srivastava, 2014). Still majority of the herbal raw materials are wildcrafted and hence habitat destruction and wildcrafting pose a serious problem to the natural population particularly where roots are the targeted plant part as the percentage of root yielding medicinal plants are higher in the subcontinent. Since these plants are purely industrial and not having alternative uses the commercial production is not flourishing at a higher pace. Still the production of medicinal and aromatic plants in India has reached 1031000 tonnes from 634000 hectares.

In the post-CBD regime with global developments in aspects of Plant Genetic Resources and Intellectual Property Rights, the outlook towards these lesser exploited species has been changed to bioprospecting from collection and documentation.Here lies the importance of value addition in medicinal plants. Value addition means a change of state of the produce which will give a manifold return than the additional investment. Value-added products can be obtained through processing of raw herb or crude drug which will improve its look and also increase its quality, longevity, efficacy and obviously the return.

1. Introduction

Intellectual property is a term referring to creations of the intellect for which a monopoly is assigned to designated owners by law. While intellectual property law has evolved over centuries, it was not until the 19^th century that the term Intellectual Property began to be used, and not until the late 20^th century that it became commonplace in the majority of the world.

Agriculture (including horticulture) and forestry are the two most important sectors in the land use system of India covering know 46.1% (141.2 m ha) and 22.2% (69.02 m ha), respectively of total geographic area of the country. Intellectual Property Right (IPR) was of limited significance in cultivation and improvement of agricultural, horticultural and forest crops and aggregation of these three sections comprises the Plant Genetic Resources (PGRs). IPRs were not applied to plants in earlier days. PGRs are the foundation for the development of food and nutritionally secured nation. Food is the foremost important to sustain life and livelihood followed by shelter and cloth. Thus, the slogan of 3Fs may be modified as, “Food, Frame (shelter) and Fibre (cloth)” instead of Food, Fodder and Fire-wood. All these 3Fs we get from PGRs.

1. Introduction

Over the centuries, the use of medicinal herbs has become an important part of daily life despite the progress in modern medical and pharmaceuticals research. It is estimated that 40% of the world populations depends directly on plant based medicine. India is one of the world’s 12 biodiversity centres. Herbal industry in India uses about 8000 medicinal plants. Indian export of raw drugs has steadily grown at 26% to Rs.165 crores in 1994-’95 from Rs.130 crores in 1991-’92 and this is likely to touch US $5 trillion by 2050. Thus, India has a great role to play, as supplier of herbal products not only to meet the domestic needs, but also to take advantage of the tremendous export potential.

Biotic stress related problems are important bottlenecks for the successful commercial cultivation of any crop. Medicinal plants are not the exception and are vulnerable to be attacked by several pests and pathogens resulting crop loss in terms of both quantity as well as quality. Therefore, the “health of these healthy plants” should be concerned. Without proper identification and prior knowledge of the pests and diseases, the management will be a waste of time and money and can lead to further plant losses.

1. Introduction

Chirata (Swertia chirayita) belongs to the family Gentiniaceae, a potential medicinal plant used as bitter tonic in treatment of fever and for curing various skin diseases, is a perennial herb and distributed throughout the eastern Himalayan region of India. The plant is a native of temperate Himalayas, found at an altitude of 1200-3000 m (4000-10000 ft), from Kashmir to Bhutan and in the Khasi hills at 1200-1500 m (4000 to 5000 ft). It can be grown in sub-temperate regions between 1500 and 2100 m altitudes. It is used in traditional medicine to treat numerous ailments such as liver disorders, malaria, and diabetes and are reported to have a wide spectrum of pharmacological properties. Its medicinal usage is well-documented in Indian pharmaceutical codex, the British, and the American pharmacopeia’s and in different traditional medicine such as the Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, Horopathy and other conventional medical systems. This ethno medicinal herb is known mostly for its bitter taste caused by the presence of different bioactive compounds that are directly associated with welfare of human health. The increasing high usage of Swertia chirayita, mostly whole plant, as well as the illegal overharvesting combined with habitat destruction resulted in a drastic reduction of its populations and has brought this plant to the verge of extinction. The increasing national and international demand for Swertia chirayita has led to unscrupulous collection from the wild and adulteration of supplies. The bitterness, antihelmintic, hypoglycemic and antipyretic properties are attributed to amarogentin (most bitter compound isolated till date) 1, swerchirin, swertiamarin and other active principles of the herb. Due to the high demand, this plant is being cultivated in many places of Darjeeling district both for domestic use within India and for exporting purpose. During our roving survey (2011-2014), it was observed that this high value medicinal plant facing a number of diseases (like seedling blight, leaf spot, Leaf blight etc.), ultimately, cultivation of Swertia chirayita is getting hampered. The quality of plant is affected due to the occurrences of diseases as whole plants part being used as medicinal purpose and also affects the marketing scenario; the demand of good quality chirata is increasing at a rate of 10% annually. To harvest the benefit of megabiodiversity zone of eastern Himalaya needs urgent attention to combat the upcoming epidemic of diseases of chirata. Here, we are trying to throw some light related to present status of diseases of chirata and standard management practices.

The review deals with 151 species of plants covering 138 genera and 66 families used by the tribes for curing women diseases involving 172 practices. Fabaceae is the dominant family with 13 species followed by Caesalpiniaceae (9 spp) and others curing a variety of ailments. The useful plants be subjected to phytochemical and pharmacological tests to determine the effective constituents and characteristic biological activity.

1. Introduction

Primitive man gets much enthusiasm towards green plants and started to examine the property of using plants by trial and error and obtained different beneficial properties. India is one of the 12 megadiversity countries and comprises of two hot spots. The World Health Organization (WHO) has compiled a list of 20,000 medicinal plants used in different parts of the globe. In India the scheduled tribe population is 104,545,716 constituting 8.6% of country total population of 1,210,726,932 (Census 2011) belonging to over 550 tribal communities and 227 ethnic groups. They inhabit about 5000 forested villages and occupying about 15% of country’s geographical area.

Several ethnic communities inhabiting in the biodiversity-rich state of Meghalaya are primarily dependent upon the forest for their livelihood needs like food, vegetables, materials for construction of houses, firewood, medicine for curing numerous ailments and many other purposes. They have acquired vast knowledge about the wealth of plant and their utilisation. The present study was aimed to document such less-known wild edible plants used by Khasi people of the state. During the current investigation, a total of 94 species of such importance belonging to 80 genera under 47 families were documented. Among these, 46 are herbs followed by 29 shrubs, 12 trees and 02 are creepers. Based on the availability and commercial potential, 37 species have been sold in local markets for income generation. Of which 17 species are sold as fruit, 11 as leaves, six as root, rhizome and tuber, five species as a stem, two as inflorescence and one species sold as fronds. All the plants are arranged alphabetically in the tabular form, followed by families, vernacular name(s), plant part(s) used, habit (s), distribution and methodology. It has been observed that the knowledge of less known wild edible plants is significantly declining day by day. These plants are known for their importance in as food nutritional supplement and its medicinal value; if the information is not collected and documented, it may not last soon.

North East India is a hub of ethnomedicinal diversity. Nearly 8,000 flowering plants are distributed and approximately 200 ethnic tribes and subtribes reside in the region. The cross-cultural diversity of the ethnic tribes and subtribes has enriched the ethnomedicinal practice in the region. Due to inaccessible terrains the ethnomedicinal practices are mostly confined to this region than the rest part of the country.More than 175 dialects are practiced in NE India. The ethnomedicinal documentation of the region in universally accepted languages was started in early 21^st century. The ethnomedicinal documentation requires multidisciplinary aspects viz., correct identification of plant species, updated nomenclature, geographical area of occurrence, IUCN status, conservational approach, vernacular names of the species, formulations, documentation of traditional knowledge informants, medicine men, specific indications of treatments, mode of preparation, mode of consumption etc, Optimum and sustainable utilization of ethomedicinal practice holds a good future for economic and societal development of the region. An insight covering various factors like challenges, scopes, legislative modalities of ethnomedicinal practices are discussed here along with a compiled list of commonly used ethnomedicinal species of the region.

Jammu division with three agro-climatic zones viz., sub-tropical, intermediate (low hills) and temperate (Fig. 1) has vast potential for horticultural industry by way of improving the productivity of existing orchards and using vast tracts of underutilized wastelands, kandi areas of sub-tropical zone and hilly areas of intermediate and temperate zones for fruit production. For this, there is need for plantation of suitable varieties, budded/grafted on proper rootstock and following of improved orchard management practices viz., training and pruning, nutrient and water management and pest and disease control. At present, fruits occupy an area of 118805.00 ha with the production of 274006.70 MT and productivity of 2.31 MT/ha in Jammu division.

Sub-tropical zone

It comprises both irrigated and unirrigated areas and goes upto an attitude of 500 m above mean sea level. This zone is characterized by hot summers and relatively dry but pronounced winters. The land is suitable for cultivation of mango, citrus crops (sweet orange, mandarin particularly kinnow, lime, lemon), guava, litchi, ber, papaya and other minor fruits. Some low chill varieties of temperate fruits like peach, plum, pear and strawberry have been introduced at Advanced Centre for Horticulture Research (ACHR) of SKUAST-J, Udheywalla and peach cultivars Shan-e-Punjab, Flordasun and Flordared and pear cultivars Patharnakh and LeConte have shown good yield and quality crop. Besides, strawberry cultivars Chandler, Gorella, Fern and Belrubi have also shown promising yield with proper management practices. For rainfed areas, hardy fruits like aonla, phalsa, ber, guava, lasoda, karonda and custard apple are more suitable with aonla, phalsa and ber being commercially more viable.

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is one of the choicest and most ancient fruits known to mankind. It occupies a pre-eminent place amongst the subtropical fruits grown in Jammu region and occupies an area of 12,739 ha with annual yield of 24,150 metric tons. It is extensively grown in Jammu district and also in the sub-tropical areas of Udhampur, Reasi, Kathua and Rajouri districts.

Climate and Soil

Mango thrives well up to 600 m above mean sea level provided locality is frost free and there is no high humidity or rains during flowering. The favourable temperature is 24⁰ C to 27⁰ C, however, it can tolerate temperature as high as 48⁰ C provided that trees are getting regular irrigation.

Mango has been found to grow on a wide range of soils. However, deep and well-drained sandy loam soils are most suitable for its cultivation. Heavy black cotton, saline and alkaline soils should be avoided. The ideal range of soil pH for mango cultivation is 5.5 to 7.5.

Citrus (Citrus spp.) is one of the most important fruits grown in sub-tropical and foot hill regions of Jammu province (Kathua, Hiranagar, Samba, Jammu, Akhnoor, parts of Basohli, Nowshera, Ramnagar, Ramban and Udhampur) upto an elevation of 800 m amsl. The most important commercial citrus fruits in Jammu region are kinnow mandarin, sweet orange, grapefruit, lemon and lime. The area under citrus fruits in Jammu division of state is 14,542 ha with an annual production of 34,191 metric tones.

Climate and soil

Citrus plants being sub-tropical cannot with stand extended cold period. Temperature below 3^oC and above 40^oC are injurious to the citrus. Hot winds and excessive heat during flowering and fruit set cause fruit drop and sun burning. These are the light loving crops.

Citrus fruits thrive well in deep, loose, well aerated soils with the pH of 5.5 to 6.2 devoid of any hard pan layers of calcium carbonate in the rooting zone up to 150 cm. High water table and poor drainage system are quite unsuitable for citrus fruits which cause drying of roots and nutritional imbalance, respectively.

The litchi (Litchi chinensis) is a delicious juicy fruit of excellent quality. It is liked very much as table fruit. Presently, litchi occupies 940 ha area in Jammu region with an annual production of 2315 MT.

Climate and Soil

Litchi being a sub-tropical fruit thrives best under warm humid sub-tropical climate. However, frost in winter and hot winds in summer limits its growth and production. Hot winds results in cracking of fruits before reaching maturity while excessive rainfall at the time of flowering interfere with pollination. The prolonged dry spell after fruit set reduces the crop considerably.

Litchi flourishes well on deep, well drained loamy soil, rich in organic matter and free from hard substrata.

Guava (Psidium guajava), the apple of tropics, is one of the most common fruits in India. It is the fourth most important fruit in area and production after mango, banana and citrus. Being hardy, it gives assured crop even with little care, and is good for rainfed areas also. This fruit is popularly being grown in sub-tropical regions of Jammu on 2480 ha with annual production of 9153 MT.

Climate and Soil

Guava is successfully grown under tropical and sub-tropical climate. In areas with distinct winter season, the yield tends to increase and quality improves. It can be grown upto an altitude of 1515 m above mean sea level. Older plants can tolerate drought. High temperature at the time of fruit development can cause fruit drop.

Guava trees are very hardy and can thrive on all types of soils, but are sensitive to water logging. The best soils are deep, loamy and well drained.

Ber (Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.) is one of the ancient and common fruits, indigenous to India. It is growing in wild, semi wild and cultivated forms all over the country in sub-tropical and tropical areas. Area under ber in J&K is 5,376 hectare with annual production of 10,779 metric tonnes.

Climate and Soil

Ber plant is hardy and can grow successfully even under poor soil and unfavourable climatic conditions, where most other fruit trees fail to grow. It prefers a hot and dry climate for its successful cultivation, but needs adequate water during its first fruiting season. It can be grown up to an elevation of 1000 meters above sea level. Excessive atmospheric humidity seems to be a limiting factor in its successful fruiting.

The ber tree develops a deep tap root system with in a short period of its growth and as such adopts itself to wide variety of soils. However, deep sandyloam soils appear to be better for its plantations. It is well known in its ability to thrive under adverse conditions of salinity, drought and water logging.

Phalsa (Grewia subinaequalis) is one of the hardiest, drought resistant and quick growing fruit crop. Different parts of the plant are used for curing variety of ailments. The ripe phalsa fruits are consumed fresh, in desserts or processed into refreshing fruit and soft drinks enjoyed during hot summers.

Climate and Soil

Phalsa prefers dry conditions and can therefore, withstand drought. It flourishes well under variable climatic conditions, and requires protection from the freezing cold temperature. Also, adequate sunlight and warm or hot temperatures are required for fruit ripening, development of appropriate fruit colour and good eating quality. Kandi areas are, therefore, quite suitable for its cultivation. It can also be grown under irrigated conditions. Phalsa plant grows vigorously under wide range of soils including fine sand, clay or even limestone. However, best results are obtained in well-drained, loamy soils.

Pecan (Carya illinoensis) is a highly nutritive and energy giving nut fruit. It has nutty flavor and superb tree characteristics. Area under pecannut in J&K is 414 hectares with annual production of 86 metric tonnes.

Climate and Soil

Pecan need warm temperate climate and extremes of both temperate and sub-tropical climates are undesirable. It needs adequate chilling hours ranging from 400-600 hours below 7.2^oC for different cultivars. Mean monthly temperature ranging from 24.0 to 29.5⁰C, with little diurnal variation during growing period is best for growth and fruiting. High humidity prevents pollination, increases the incidence of diseases and premature splitting of nuts.

Although pecan nuts are grown in varied soil conditions, but sandy loam soils (pH 5.0-8.0) which are deep, fertile and are rich in organic matter are best for its growth and fruiting. Symbiotic mycorrhiza and fibrous roots permeate the top 1 meter of soil.

Apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.) is a premium fruit of the world. It is a typical temperate fruit and main fruit crop of J&K State. The area under this fruit in J&K State is 1,62,971 hectares with an annual production of 17,26,834 metric tones. The acreage under this fruit crop in Jammu Division is 18,146 hectares and the annual production is 38,421 metric tones. In Jammu Division, apple is being grown in upper areas of Doda, Kishtwar, Ramban, Poonch, Udhampur, Reasi, Kathua and Rajouri districts.

Climate and soil

Apple is a typical temperate fruit crop requiring 1000-1600 hours of rest period below 7^oC. The average temperature during growing season should be 21⁰C to 24⁰C. Sunshine is essential for colour development of the fruit. In general, a cool climate with low winter temperature and little rainfall in summer is most suitable for apple cultivation.

Apple is grown on a wide range of soils. However, a well drained slightly acidic (about 6.5 -6.7 pH) loam soil with good depth (more than 45 cm) is ideal for apple cultivation. Apple can’t tolerate wet field, and water logging may cause collar rot and death of trees.

Pear (Pyrus spp.) is a superior temperate fruit with good taste and flavour. Because of its tolerance to wide range of soil and climatic conditions, it is grown both in sub-tropical and temperate conditions. In J&K, 14,532 hectare area is under cultivation, with an annual production of 88,329 metric tones. In Jammu Division, pear is being grown on 7,600 hectare having 30,257 metric tonnes production annually. The pear is grown in Doda, Poonch, Rajouri, Udhampur and Kathua districts of Jammu Division.

Climate and Soil

Pear is adapted to wide range of climatic conditions. Most of the commercial cultivars require 900-1000 hours of chilling below 7^oC to break the dormancy. Pear is a temperate fruit crop; however, it can be grown successfully in subtropical regions of Jammu. There are several low chilling cultivars, which are well adapted for cultivation under sub-tropical conditions. Pears are grown successfully over a wide range of soils provided they have sufficient moisture. Compared to apples, they are less tolerant to drought and rather more tolerant to impeded drainage. Deep, well drained and fertile soil give high yield.

Peach (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch.) is a highly popular fruit crop grown in temperate regions of the world. In India, peach cultivation is confined to mid hill zone of Himalayas extending from J&K State to Khasi Hill at an altitude of 1500 to 2000 meters above mean sea level. Low chilling cultivars are also grown in sub mountainous zones of Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and Western U.P. and also gaining popularity in sub-tropical areas of Jammu. Peach crop in J&K state covers an area of 2,615 hectares with 1,699 hectares falling in Jammu Division. Total production of peach in J&K state is 6,221 metric tonnes, out of which 2,612 metric tonnes are being contributed by Jammu Division. Main peach growing areas in Jammu region are hilly areas of Poonch, Doda, Kishtwar, Ramban Udhampur, Reasi, Rajouri and Kathua districts. Recently, the new orchards of low chill peaches are also being planted in Jammu, Samba and Kathua districts.

Climate and Soil

Peach does well in wet and cool climate with cold winter and dry summer. It likes mild climate. The limiting factors in peach cultivation are the minimum winter temperature, chilling hours, spring frost, hail storms, high humidity and desiccating winds during summer. In sub-tropical areas of North, the low chilling cultivars require 50-300 hours of chilling during the winter for proper flowering and fruiting.

The peach thrives well on light textured soil. Deep, fertile, loam or sandy loam with good drainage is considered well for successful peach cultivation. Poorly drained soil should be rejected for peach cultivation.

Plum (Prunus saliciana Lindl.) is a temperate fruit and grows on commercial scale in J&K, HP and Uttaranchal. In J&K, plum cultivation is spread over 4,038 hectares with total yield of 10,112 metric tones. In Jammu Division, plum is being grown in temperate areas of Poonch, Rajouri, Doda and Kathua districts covering an area of 2,665 hectares with an annual production of 14,240 metric tonnes.

Climate and Soil

Plums because of their wide variability between different species, exhibit considerate varietal differences in their climatic requirements. The Japanese plums do very well in the low and mid hill regions ranging between 650 to 1650 meters above mean sea level. Some varieties can be grown successfully in the warmer regions of plains.

For good growth and longer life of plants, well drained medium to deep soils are most suitable. Plums propagated on peach root stocks grow better on sandy loam soil, while for heavier soils apricot rootstock or Kabul green gage root stocks of plum can be used.

Walnuts (Juglans regia L.) are found in the northern parts of the country in temperate belts. They are grown in the length and breadth of the valley in Jammu and Kashmir and hilly areas of Jammu. The walnut is being cultivated in the state on 89,339 ha with an annual production of about 2,66,280 metric tonnes. In Jammu Division, walnut plantation is on 38,318 ha with an annual production of 92,227 metric tonnes. The walnut is very rich in proteins, fats and minerals and is a concerned source of energy.

Climate and Soil

Walnuts are found growing in all parts of the Himalayan region between the elevation of 1200 to 2100 m above mean sea level. Walnuts are sensitive to both low and high temperature. Climate should be free from frost in spring and from extreme heat in summer. They grow well in areas where rainfall is about 75 cm or more and is well distributed. Temperature of 29-32^oC near harvest time, results in well-filled kernels.

Walnuts do best in soils where roots can penetrate deep evenly. In addition to good top soil, sub-soil must be free of rock, impervious clay or layers of gravel. Most suitable soil is well drained silt loam with abundant organic matter. Alkaline soil and sandy soils should be avoided for walnut growing. A soil with 2-3 metres depth and pH range of 6-7 gives best results.

1.1. General Discussion of Milk

“The cow is the foster mother of the human race. From the days of the ancient Hindoo to this time have the thoughts of men turned to this kindly and beneficent creature as one of the chief sustaining forces of human life”.

William Dempster Hoard (1836-1918)
Former Governor, State of Wisconsin, USA (1889-1891)
Founder of Hoard’s Dairyman (1885)

The oldest written records of the human race are in Sanskrit and are preserved in India. At the time these records began, about 6,000 years ago, milk had already become an important article of food. In fact, so important was the cow to these early people of South and Central Asia that wealth was measured in numbers of cattle, and the cow was in time made a sacred animal and is still so considered in India.

According to the best authorities, the domestication of cattle must have occurred somewhere between 6,000 and 10,000 years ago. The cow was worshipped in Babylonia, and in Egypt about 20,000 B.C. Over fifty references to cows and milk are found in Old Testament and the Promised Land was described as “a land flowing with milk and honey”.

Milk is the only food of the young mammal during the first period of its life. The substances in milk provide more energy and the building materials necessary for growth. Milk also contains antibodies which protect the young mammal against infection. A calf needs about 1000 litres of milk for growth, and that is the quantity which the primitive cow produces for each calf. There has been an enormous changes since man took the cow into his service. Selective breeding has resulted in dairy cows which yield more than 5,000 litres of milk per calf, i.e. five times as much as the primitive cow. Some cows can yield 10,000 litres or more.

“Tell me what you eat and I will tell you what you are. The destiny of people depends on the nature of its diet.”

A. Brillat-Savarin

Milk is the only product which is considered nature’s almost perfect food. It is treasure house of unlimited nutrients. It is considered best and ideal food by virtue of possessing almost all the nutritional factors, viz., fats, proteins, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins. They are not only of higher quality but are present in milk in such form and proportion that their digestion and assimilation in the body is very efficient. Milk also plays a supplementary role in our nutrition. If it is included in our diet it enhances digestion and assimilation of nutrients of other food products. This is the reason that it is kept in high esteem as a food and is called the nectar for living beings.

Milk is the first taste of food for whole mankind. It establishes the mother-infant bond and is a life promoter. Of the many fluids that biology offers milk is perhaps the most versatile in terms of its use– as food, as a growth stimulant and as a defense package to the user. To the infant mammal – be it a mouse, calf or a human child, mother’s milk is more than a source of energy and nutrients. It contains a wide variety of substances that defend the growing infant against infections.

Milk, a perfect blend of nutrition and palatability, plays an important role in preserving mental and physical health. Milk has long been recognized as the most wholesome and complete single food available in nature for health and as a medicine, both preventive as well as curative. Ancient chronicles as recorded in the Upnishads, Puranas and Vedas extol the beneficial and therapeutic properties of milk and milk products. It has been stated that cow milk, dahi and ghee impart knowledge and radiance, cure heart trouble and anaemia besides other bodily diseases.

Milk is a complex colloidal dispersion, the physical and physicochemical properties of which depend on intrinsic compositional and structural factors, extrinsic factors such as temperature, and post-milking treatment.

There is no clear dividing line between physical properties and physicochemical properties. However, physical properties may be thought of as the measure of the bulk behaviour of milk and of how milk interacts with energy, while physicochemical properties are measures of how bulk behaviour and energy interactions depend on the constituent colloidal particles, molecules, atoms and ions in milk.

Knowledge of physical properties is of importance particularly in the technological and engineering design and control of milk processes and processing equipment. Knowledge of physicochemical properties provides the basis for the design of modern methods of milk analysis, determination of milk microstructures and elucidation of the complex chemical reactions that occur in milk.

In the dairy industry measurements of the physical properties of milk and milk products are made to secure data necessary for the design of dairy equipment (e.g., heat conductivity and viscosity) to determine the concentration of a component (e.g., specific gravity to estimate solids-not-fat or freezing point to determine added water), or to assess the extent of a physical or chemical change (e.g., titratable acidity to follow bacterial action or viscosity to assess aggregation of protein micelles or fat globules). The great advantage of physical measurements for such purposes is their speed and simplicity as well as their potentialities for automation.

Use of physical property to measure concentrations or changes in degree of dispersion demands knowledge of the contribution of the several components to that property. Furthermore, the natural range of variation of the property in milks or products is of major interest. The precision and suitability of possible methods of measurement are also of prime importance.

Microorganism is a collective term for all living organisms, which are not visible to the eye, and occupy an intermediate position between the vegetable and animal kingdoms. They are found every where in the atmosphere, in water and in the soil and, as they break down organic materials, they play a very important role in the cycle of the nature.

There are thousands of species which are important to the life and economic structure of the human race. For example, certain species form simple chemical elements during the break down of dead organic material which plants can use again. They increase soil fertility and crop production which results in more food.

Other species are present, and essential, in animal intestines, helping in the digestion of food.

Some microorganisms are used in many food processes, e.g. dahi, yoghurt, cheese, pickles, beer and wine as well as in the acid production to preserve foods. There are microorganisms that produce toxic substances which kill other organisms, e.g. the mould penicillium which produces the substance penicillin.

Many microorganisms cause diseases in animals and plants with a subsequent reduction in the nation’s food supply, whereas others cause food deterioration such as mouldy foods, tainted foods, etc.

Milk is a highly perishable commodity. The shelf life of raw milk is in hours. In order to harness its full potential for the well being of the humanity, it is essential to extend its shelf life not only in days but also in months and years. This can be achieved by judicious application of processing and preservation technologies.

Preservation is any purposeful treatment or processing of a food which prevents spoilage and extends the shelf life of raw material to a longer than its natural keeping quality.

During storage and distribution foods are exposed to a wide range of environmental conditions. Environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, oxygen and light can trigger several reactions that may lead to food deterioration. As a result foods may be altered to such an extent that they are either rejected by the consumer or are harmful to the person consuming them. It is, therefore, essential that the good knowledge of different reactions that cause food deterioration is gained prior to understanding the principles of food preservation.

The deterioration in foods may be caused either due to internal or external chemical or microbial reactions occurring in milk. The changes may be either latent to senses of consumer, or they may be discernible by the human senses. The consumer cannot perceive latent changes visually, olfactorily or otherwise, and laboratory measurements are the only method to detect them. Still the nutritional value of such materials may be seriously impaired. Such changes include fermentation, oxidation of lipids, loss of vitamins and changes in the contents and composition of nitrogenous substances.

Non-microbial changes in foods, perceptible to human senses, may often lead to serious deterioration noticeable to the average consumer. These include discolouration and changes in odor, taste and consistency. Microbial changes may result in alteration of original properties of milk making it unfit for further processing, deterioration in flavour quality, loss of nutrients and toxin production.

Membrane technology is a proven separation method used on the molecular and ionic levels. Since the beginning of the 1970s, this technique has been adopted by the dairy industry. Membrane separation is widely used in dairy processing plants to perform an ever-increasing range of duties, e.g. pre-concentration, partial demineralization, protein separation, bacteria removal, brine clarification and waste water recycling. Representing one of the great technological developments occurring within the dairy industry during the second half of the twentieth century, progress was driven initially by the transfer of know-how gleaned from the application of cellulose acetate-based reverse osmosis (RO) and ultrafiltration (UF) membranes in other industrial sectors to whey processing. Later, new membrane materials and engineering designs were built on this initial achievement and opened up further opportunities for the application of the full spectrum of membrane separation systems that also includes Nan filtration (NF) and cross-flow microfiltration The integration of these unit operations into traditional dairy processes has led to the development of innovative ingredients as well as improvements in yield, efficiency and product quality. R & D work indicates potential RO application for concentration of milk for products like khoa, condensed and dried milk products and of UF application for the manufacture of shrikhand, paneer, chana and cheese. Application of these processes permits higher energy saving, higher yields and superior product quality compared to traditional processes of thermal evaporation.

Packaging means a coordinated system of preparation of goods for distribution, storage, merchandizing and shipment at optimum cost compatible with the requirements of the product. It also includes the art, science and technique used, preparatory to and during transportations and selling of goods and technical methods and work processes related to the above preparations.

The broad range of dairy products necessitates that packaging equipment and materials encompass nearly all types from flexible to rigid and from high to low barrier. The general types of packaging and equipment are discussed below with a focus on fluid products but it must be recognized that other dairy products such as cheese have their own particular packaging requirements and technologies.

Role of packaging in distribution and sale: The essence of what makes milk and dairy products important source of human nutrition also causes rapid deterioration and high perishability. The major role of dairy packaging is to retard the deterioration by preventing microbial recontamination and excessive chemical deterioration. Fluid products are especially susceptible to microbial, enzymatic and chemical degradation. In addition to retarding quality loss, packaging must provide containment, facilitate use, identify products, communicate, and appeal to consumers, all with maximum production efficiency. The large volumes and low unit value means that these functions must be met with minimal economic cost and environmental impact. Because food packaging is generally highly regulated, legal requirements must also be understood and met.

When natural constituents of whole milk are altered by addition, removal, exchange and / or treatment, the resultant milk is designated as special milk. Recent years have witnessed a large increase in market penetration of special milks into the total fluid milk market. In many countries, now a large portion of fluid milk is consumed in the form of special milks. Manufacturers of special milks offer numerous advantages that are broadly related to dietary, cost and scarcity aspects. Special milks provide an avenue to diversify the milk with variety of flavours and other characteristics.

Milk is considered as nature’s almost perfect food. However, milk in its natural form is not considered suitable for many more healthy people who do not like the taste of milk as such. All these problems can be overcome by manufacturing special milks such as dietetic milks, low fat milks, flavoured milks, etc.

Butterfat is the most expensive constituent of milk. Therefore, the cost of buffalo whole milk is very high and many people particularly the weaker section of our society cannot afford to buy it. Consequently, manufacture of low priced toned milk was introduced in many markets. This also enabled the dairy plants to meet the ever increasing demand of milk, particularly during lean season. Replacement of butterfat by vegetable fat could also help in reducing the cost of milk

Due to seasonal fluctuation in milk production, there is acute shortage of milk during the lean period in our country. In certain parts of the world fresh milk is not produced at all. Manufacture of reconstituted and recombined milk from anhydrous milk solids can overcome such whole milk shortage. These anhydrous milk solids could either be prepared from the domestic seasonal surplus or marketed from those countries that have surplus milk production. The machinery and manpower of a market milk plant can be fully utilized all the year round by such diversifications.

Fat-rich dairy products such as cream, makhan, butter, butter oil and ghee have played a pivotal role in growth and development of dairy industry in India as well as abroad from the time immemorial. The reference of makhan and ghee has been found in old Indian scriptures. Makhan was popularized by Lord Krishna about 5000 years before. In the traditional Indian dietary regimen, milk fat in the form of malai (cream), makhan (freshly churned butter) contributes significantly towards nourishment of people of almost all ages.

Indian dairy industry, over the years, has been converting surplus milk for the manufacture of fat-rich dairy products, especially ghee and butter with skimmilk as a byproduct because of technological and economic reasons. More than one-third of the total milk production is being utilized for the production of ghee and butter wherein milk lipids, the most expensive constituents of milk are conserved and preserved. Milk lipids play many diverse roles, some of which are essential for human health. Many of the desirable flavour and textural attributes of dairy products are due to their lipid components, consequently, butterfat has, traditionally, been highly valued. Significance of fat can also be realized from the fact that the consumer’s perception of food quality is largely based on the perceivable rich taste. Unfortunately, milk lipids are subject to chemical and enzymatic alterations which can cause flavour defects referred to as oxidative and hydrolytic rancidity, respectively. The storage stability of high-fat products is strongly influenced by these changes.

2.1. The Story of Fermentation

Human progress depends on man’s tact to tame the forces of nature. It calls for knowledge. Prior to Age of Science, our fund of such knowledge was gained by a process of trial, error and accidental discovery. Progress was due not so much to man’s understanding as it was to his unquenchable spirit, miraculous ingenuity and indomitable persistence.

At last, in the utmost urgency of struggle for a longer, healthier and more satisfying existence, humanity taught itself the scientific method, which has changed the world, and will change it more in the coming years. This chapter deals with one of the most momentous and far reaching of all scientific achievements: the ability to harness microscopic living creatures in the service of mankind. Thanks to the wonders of fermentation technology and biochemical engineering developed by scientists and skilled technicians in industrial, governmental and university laboratories around the world, billions of microbes are now at work in industry, producing substances that give us better food $#x0026; drink, better clothing $#x0026; shelter and better medicines. Thus, the human race has entered a new era of health, comfort and longevity.

In the Beginning Art without Science: The cave man discovered that meat allowed to stand a few days was more pleasing to the taste than meat eaten soon after the kill. The cave man’s earliest descendants learned that intoxicating drinks could be made from grains and fruits.

Starter cultures were unknown until 1878, when Lister isolated pure cultures of the lactic acid bacteria responsible for milk acidification. In the 1980s, improvements to standardization and ripening of butter were made by introducing pure starter cultures. During the period 1910-20, Orla-Jensen, von Freudenreich, Sherman, Hammer and other dairy microbiologists prepared pure cultures for fermented milks. Commercial production and use of starter cultures grew rapidly and was widespread at the beginning of the 20^th century.

Dairy starters are the ‘heart’ of fermented milk products, the most crucial component in the manufacture of high-quality fermented milks. The cultures are harmless food-grade microorganisms, active bacteria intentionally grown in milk or whey or other formulated media which impart desirable and predictable flavour and texture to fermented dairy products.

The dairy microorganisms employed in milk fermentation are single-strain or multiple-strain cultures of lactic acid bacteria, producing different types of fermented milk products. Usually, one or two strains dominate the milk environment. Individual strains can be selected in advance for their resistance to both bacteriophages and antibiotics. Mixed starter cultures are used to ensure that fermentation will continue after a bacteriophage attack. Bacteriophages are highly strain-specific, and if the dominant strain in a mixed-strain starter culture succumbs to an attack, the phage-resistant mutant or the next dominant culture maintains a satisfactory rate of lactic acid production.

Cheese is a milk product of ancient origin and portrays the ethos of civilization and its cultural evolution. Cheese is one of the oldest foods of mankind. It is commonly believed that cheese evolved in the Fertile Crescent between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates in Iraq some 8000 years ago. The so-called Agricultural Revolution occurred here with the domestication of plants and animals.

It seems that the cheese originated accidentally as a result of the activities of nomadic tribes. Since animal skin bags were a convenient way of storing liquids for nomadic people, these were used for storing surplus milk. Fermentation of the milk sugars in the warm climate prevailing would cause the milk to curdle in the bags. The swaying animals would have broken up the acid curd during journeys, to produce curds and whey. The whey provided a refreshing drink on hot journeys, while the curds, preserved by the acid of fermentation and a handful of salt, became a source of high protein food supplementing the meager meat supply.

This activity gave rise to the assumption that cheese was evolved from fermented milks. It is perhaps more probable that the crude fermentations progressed in two ways. In one direction towards the production of liquid fermented milks such as dahi, yoghurt, laban, koumis and Kefir and in the other direction through the drainage of whey through a cloth or perforated bowls, to leave solid curds which when salted became cheese.

It was a prominent article of the Greek and Roman diet as much as 2500 years ago. It is referred to in the Old Testament several times.

Heat desiccated products represent khoa and khoa-based sweets, rabri, basundi, etc. These are important traditional dairy products. Traditional dairy products and a great assortment of sweets is an integral part of Indian heritage. These products are endowed with enormous value and enjoy tremendous mass appeal. Of great social, religious, cultural and economic importance these products have been developed over a long period of culinary skills and carry with them, the age-old wisdom and experience. Traditional dairy products have always played a pivotal role in preservation of precious milk nutrients and promotion of its consumption among masses. The increased availability of milk during the flush season coupled with lack of facilities to keep liquid milk fresh during transit from rural production areas to urban market has led to the conversion of milk into variety of traditional products. In addition to preservation of milk solids for longer duration, manufacture of traditional dairy products adds value to milk and also provides tremendous employment opportunity. It is estimated that about 50% of milk produced in India is converted into a variety of traditional products.

Traditional dairy products represent the most prolific segment of Indian dairy industry. These products not only have an established market in India but also have a great export potential because of strong presence of Indian diaspora in many parts of the world. In view of the growing awareness towards the safety aspects of milk-based sweets in India, the consumer shall prefer to buy these products from the organized sector. Despite the widespread popularity and acceptability of traditional milk products in the Indian market, the organized sector has so far not been able to tap into this market potential for many reasons such as lack of published literature on their technology, inadequacy of appropriate technologies for their commercial exploitation, inadequacy of appropriate packaging materials and labeling to take care of new pattern in consumer demand, low keeping quality and a lack of quality assurance systems.

Milk may be concentrated as a necessary initial step in drying operation or as concentrating step in the manufacture of sweetened condensed milk or evaporated milk or the preparation of infant formulae. In order to preserve the milk constituents in a concentrated form, condensed milk/concentrated milk is manufactured from whole skim milk by removing or evaporating part of the water under vacuum. But this form of milk still has limited shelf life. Attempts to prolong the shelf life of this product have been made through the addition of bacterial growth inhibitor like sugar (sweetened condensed milk) or by heat processing (evaporated milk) to destroy the microorganisms.

Concentrated milk industry is an important segment of dairy industry. It plays an important role in the economy of industry. It serves as a balanced economy. It utilizes surplus milk in the flush season. It utilizes abundant milk production in certain localized area. It makes use of surplus milk below excellent grade. By either concentrating or drying less space is needed to store and it becomes less bulky and therefore it can be transported to any part of the world. The keeping quality of milk is increased. The concentrated products give considerable saving in the cost of packaging, storage and transportation. Milk concentrates can be easily reconstituted with required amount of water corresponding to that removed by evaporation to yield a product having normal consistency of milk. It is estimated that nearly two per cent of the world’s milk production is converted into different types of condensed or concentrated milks.

Brief history and developments: The present day concept of preservation of milk by concentration and by application of heat had the beginning with the pioneering work of French man Nicholas Appert around 1793. Gail Bordon of USA was first to commercially exploit the method of concentration of milk under vacuum. He was awarded U.S. Patent in the year 1856 for processing milk in a semi-fluid state after evaporating under vacuum. Commercial production of sweetened condensed milk by Gail Bordon started in 1856.

The method of preserving various food stuffs by drying them, and thereby depriving microorganisms of the water necessary for their growth, has been known for centuries. According to Marco Polo’s accounts of his travel in Asia in 13^th century, soldiers of Kublai Khan carried dried milk on excursions. Before it was used, water was added to a portion of dried material. Mixing was accomplished by movement of the horse during riding on the trip. The recombined product was then consumed at the mealtime. The belief is that part of the fat was removed from the milk before drying and dehydration was accomplished by solar heating.

Drying is defined as the removal of the liquid, usually water, from a product by evaporation, leaving the solids in an essentially dry state. Today the production of dried milk and milk products has become important segment of dairy industry. Dry milk provides a means of preserving the excess milk supply during the flush season for use during the lean season. The value added dried dairy products like malted milk foods, infant food and infant formulae and dairy whiteners are convenient ready to use products having wide acceptance. The water content of milk powder ranges between 2.5 and 5%, and no microbial growth occurs at such low water content. Drying extends the shelf life of milk, simultaneously reducing its weight and volume. The main purpose of drying milk are: a) to improve the storage life of the product due to low moisture content, b) to reduce cost for storage and transportation of product due to reduced bulk, and c) to provide convenient product for utilization in many dairy and food preparations.

The production of dried milks to a great extent is now being governed by the market requirement and to some specialized use of such products. Considerable quantities of dried skim milk powders are being used extensively in the preparation of ‘Reconstituted and Recombined milks”. Milk powders are also used extensively in the manufacture of ice cream, bakery products, confectionary products, cottage cheese and in other cheese varieties. The greatest proportion of milk powder is utilized in confectioneries, such as milk chocolate, caramels, soft sweets, coatings, biscuits and cakes. In these products, milk powder has a special effect on the quality of particular products: it improves consistency, flavour as well as nutritional value and shelf life.

Ice cream over the years has come to acquire an easy acceptance as a healthy, nutritious and hygienic food for the aged, sick, growing children and adults. Its popularity, as demonstrated on all types of occasions is growing fast and its potential appears to be unlimited.

Gone are the days when the word “Ice Cream” was synonymous with strawberry and vanilla flavours or the innocuous orange. Ice cream is available in many forms, flavours and packages. Today, there are exotic variations to titilate the palate, such as Jingle Bells, Goody goody Gum Drops, Champagne Snowballs, Mr. Frost, Tutty Fruity, Butter Scotch, etc, waiting to launch customers on a gastronomical voyage.

It is uncertain how long ice cream has been produced, however, the International Association of Ice cream Manufacturers (1966) traces the beginnings of ice cream and frozen desserts to iced drinks enjoyed by Alexander the Great in the fourth century B.C. down through the years Nero in the first century A. D., Marco Polo in the 13^th century through Italy and France to England in 1643-1649, and to America around 1700. From a very old writings it has been learnt that the Chinese liked a frozen product made by mixing fruit juices with snow, what we now call water ice. It is believed that ice cream evolved from iced beverages and water ices that were popular in the medieval period. This technique later spread to ancient Greece and Rome, where the wealthy, were partial to frozen desserts.

After disappearing for several centuries, ice creams in various forms reappeared in Italy in the Middle Ages, most probably as a result of Marco Polo returning to Italy in 1295 after a 16-17 year stay in China, where he had learnt to appreciate a frozen dessert based on milk. There is no gainsaying the fact that the true origin of ice cream cannot be proclaimed with a fair measure of certainty but, all the same, the Italians claim that Benaroo Bountalenti, a resident of Tuscany, invented ice cream in the early 1300s. From Italy ice cream spread over Europe during the 17^th century, and for long remained a luxury product for the royal courts. Italian ice cream was very popular in London around 1870.

Dairy byproducts constitute an important segment of dairy industry. An important criterion in the economic choice of any process is the efficient utilization of byproduct that is produced along with the main product. The main byproducts of dairy industry are skim milk, buttermilk, whey and ghee residue. Each and every component of milk must be judiciously processed into edible form not only to improve the profitability of dairy industry but also to make best use of the unique nutritional value of the precious milk constituents on one hand, and to prevent environmental pollution, on the other. However, dairy plants, particularly in India, are usually confronted with the problem of byproduct utilization, especially that of whey and ghee residue in economical manner.

Skim milk is a byproduct obtained during the manufacture of cream. It is rich in solids-not-fat content and has high nutritional value. In dairy plants, it is mostly utilized either in standardization for the manufacture of main dairy products or preserved by removing moisture in milk powder form. The skim milk when utilized in either of these two forms or consumed as liquid, is not considered a byproduct. It is regarded as a byproduct only when it is either not economically utilized or utilized for derived byproducts, like casein and other related products, co-precipitates, protein hydrolyzates, etc.

Buttermilk is the byproduct obtained during butter manufacture. Sweet cream buttermilk resembles skim milk in gross chemical composition and is usually admixed with bulk of skim milk for further spray drying or even product manufacture in dairy plants. Desi buttermilk, on the other hand, has long been an important domestic beverage in India. It has high nutritive and therapeutic value. It also finds its way in the preparation of a host of culinary dishes such as kadhi, dhokla and idili. Also a number of federations and private plants sell salted and spiced buttermilk in 200 ml pouches.

Introduction

In terms of individual health and physical condition, the situation in modern society is rather giving rise to concern. The last decades have seen a tremendous increase in availability and variety of food products which has undoubtedly affected the food habits of the average individual. Despite the fact that food has become overall safer and increased accessibility allows for healthier diets, worrying we are nevertheless faced nowadays with diet- related diseases of proper epidemic proportions. We now encounter an epidemic of obesity that spreads not only to the majority of the adult population but also, more worryingly, to young people who have rarely the option of alternative diets. Moreover, as scientific proofs for the link between diet and disease (particularly cardiovascular diseases and some cancers) accumulate, action is urgently needed. There are an increasing number of calls for action. It is within this situation that functional foods have developed. They assume a highly targeted solution to the diet related diseases with effective reduction of risk and improved physical and mental well being. That represents a big step from the traditional food-for-nutrition but the scientific milieu is ready to take the chances. The emerging ‘functional food science’ is focusing research on the effects of functional foods on growth, development, metabolism, the cardiovascular system, intestinal physiology, and even on behavioural and psychological functions (FAIR, 2000, Vol. 1). In view of these facts, it should appear necessary to assess and evaluate the developments in food production in terms of their effect on the individual consumer and the society at large.

There is no single factor as important in the production of fine quality dairy products as absolute and complete cleanliness.

R.B. Barrett

It is not enough to provide milk for man, it must be high quality milk. It would be impossible to provide man with milk and milk products of superior quality if we were unable to remove milk soil and to kill residual microorganisms. Respectively, these are the processes of cleaning and sanitizing.

To successfully provide the atmosphere for proper food safety, the basics must be thoroughly understood. The basics of food safety begin with good understanding of sanitation processes, food-handling procedures that protect from, or eliminate cross contamination problems and specific attention to inspection of and follow up for all processes. Food safety activities need to be programmed into available time of day scheduling just as production requirements do. Whether special personnel or separate shifts handle cleaning responsibilities or you clean as you go on the production line, time must be made available. Safe products leaving the facility must be the watch word of all employees involved with the process.

In order to ensure safe food supply a high level of sanitation should be maintained throughout the food production chain. The word ‘sanitation’ is derived from the Latin word “sanitas” which means “health”. To further apply this word to the food industry, sanitation is the creation and maintenance of hygienic and healthful conditions when processing, preparing and handling food. Sanitation is the application of science to provide wholesome food handled in a hygienic environment by healthy food handlers to prevent contamination by food spoilage microorganisms. Effective sanitation refers to the mechanisms, which accomplish these goals.

We all are familiar with the word “quality”. If we bring some fruits or vegetables from the market, the other family members will reflect on their quality by making observations such as: fresh or stale, good or bad quality or inferior product, etc. These observations are perceptions of consumers based on the sensory attributes of the fruit or vegetable colour, appearance, touch, smell or taste.

The quality characteristics of food that are acceptable to consumers are comprehended under the term “Food Quality. It includes external factors such as appearance (size, shape, colour, gloss, and consistency); internal factors (chemical, physical, microbiological) and characteristics/ specifications prescribed under the Government laws/standards. If consumer’s perceptions regarding quality of food are not positive he or she either will not purchase the material or will be paying less compared to when the consumer has positive perception about the quality.

The relationship between quality, profitability and market share has been well established. In the quest of quality, the dairy business is passing through revolutionary changes and the need for such changes has been very well realized. The leaders have initiated the process of setting vision and are working hard to provide the basic infrastructure with necessary resources. This has become a point of vital importance as the nation has now captured the first rank in milk production globally and is now ready and set to march ahead in the global race for dairy products market. Our country has great potential to export the dairy products such as cheese particularly Mozzarella, Feta, and indigenous products such as ghee, khoa, chhana, paneer, and array of sweets. Food items or dairy products to be traded in the international markets should be manufactured in accordance with global accepted norms and standards. In order to improve the quality of milk and milk products the Government of India is focusing on “Clean Milk Production”. As a dairy technologists and entrepreneurs, we must ensure production of quality products.

1.    ———— is a synthetic antimicrobial drug against M. tuberculosis.
    A.    Penicillin    B.    Tetracycline
    C.    Erythromycin    D.    Isoniazid
Ans.    D.
2.    Which of the antibiotic is not used as a food preservative ?
    A.    Pimaricin    B.    Nisin
    C.    Tylosin    D.    b-lactam antibiotic
Ans.    D.
3.    Which of the following bacteria is susceptible to thiophen-2-carboxylic acid hydrazide?
    A.    M. bovis    B.    M. tuberculosis
    C.    M. chelonei    D.    M. fortuitum
Ans.    A.