eBook Chapters

I. Case Study Framework: Agri-Sector Startups
This framework focuses on analyzing the startup’s value proposition, execution, and impact within the agricultural landscape.
A. Start-ups Profile
1. Name and Location: (e.g., “Agbotic, New York, USA”)
2. Founding Date and Team: (Key founders, their backgrounds, and relevant experience in agriculture, technology, or business). Highlight the team’s expertise and any advisory boards.
3. Mission and Vision: What problem are they solving? What is their longterm goal for transforming agriculture?
4. Legal Structure: (e.g., LLC, Corporation)
5. Funding History: Seed rounds, Series A, venture capital, grants, bootstrapping. Identify key investors and the amount raised.
6. Stage of Development: (e.g., Ideation, Seed, Early Growth, Scaling)
B. Value Proposition
1. Problem Addressed: Clearly define the specific challenge in agriculture that the startup is tackling. (e.g., labor shortages, inefficient irrigation, lack of market access for small farmers, food waste, soil degradation).
2. Solution Offered: Describe the startup’s product or service. Be specific about how it works. (e.g., AI-powered yield prediction software, robotic harvesting systems, a mobile platform connecting farmers to buyers, a  bio-fertilizer product).

1. Precision Agriculture
Example: Farmers Edge
Farmers Edge offers a comprehensive suite of solutions for farmers, utilizing data analytics, AI, and IoT (Internet of Things) technologies. The platform provides predictive analytics for crop health, soil quality, and weather, helping farmers make informed decisions.
• Impact: Improved yield and reduced resource wastage.
• Technology: Satellite imagery, data analytics, and machine learning.
2. Vertical Farming
Example: AeroFarms AeroFarms uses aeroponic technology to grow crops without soil, using 95% less water than traditional farming methods. They operate indoor farms that can produce high yields all year round, independent of climate conditions. • Impact: Increased food security in urban areas; fresh produce available year-round.
• Technology:Aeroponics, LED lighting, and climate control systems.
3. Supply Chain Optimization
Example: Example: AgroStar
AgroStar is a mobile platform connecting farmers with quality products and services, including fertilizers, pesticides, and seeds. They also provide guidance on best practices for crop management, enabling farmers to make better purchasing decisions.

Quantitative studies are preferred over qualitative studies for their relatively higher objectivity. But many of the times, complexities involved in the occurrence of phenomenon, its causes, and consequences demand for in-depth analysis of a single unit of study. Whenever we want to study a single unit in depth both qualitatively and quantitatively then case study is the best method of research. Case study is a best tool to use, when we are interested in exploring a new phenomenon on which there is very less scientific information available and also when we are interested in formulating new hypothesis for causal study.

Case taking in homeopathy is based on five themes such as Philosophy of Homeopathy, Materia Medica of Homeopathy, The case, Case Analysis and Case Management (Owen, 2007).

Themes

i. Philosophy – Clinical practice of homeopathy is based on the principles and key concepts of homeopathy as detailed in Chapter 2 and 12.

ii. Materia Medica- It is in the core of understanding of the practice of homeopathy providing the information how the remedy pictures are developed and expressed in different ways. It allows the practitioner to understand the patient and prescribe rationally.

iii. The Case- The relationship between a homeopath (human /veterinary) and patient (animal or human) is in the center of the therapeutic process in case taking in homeopathy. It is more than a record of the consultation as case skills facilitate the level of revealing by the patient and the depth to which the homeopath perceives.

iv. Case Analysis- Case analysis allows the matching of what is perceived of the patient with what is known of the remedies. Case analysis governs the order, pattern and interpretation that emerge in the healing process. The variety of case analysis strategies and methodologies available to the homeopath is a major factor that determines the breadth of their clinical competence.

Introduction

India is well-known around the world for its rapid economic growth rates over the last fifteen years or so, fuelled in part by the spectacular growth in its export- oriented software and ICT-based services sector. Many other countries look to India as a model for global outsourcing and try to imitate elements of this in their own strategies (Carmel 2003; Heeks and Nicholson 2004). Success at a particular period of time does not, of course, guarantee its continuation and commentators have expressed concerns such as rising wage rates and skills shortages of ICT professionals (CACM 2007), and increasing competition from countries such as China (Negroponte 2003). It is likely, however, that India will remain a major player in the ICT industry for years to come and thus its global image as an ICT success story will continue. Viewed from a broader development perspective, things are not so simple. The new wealth that has arisen in India from the ICT boom benefits the relatively wealthy and educated in the first instance (Kambhampati 2002). Will this trickle down to the poor and uneducated? Statistics paint a mixed picture of the current situation. On the one hand, India is now the world’s fourth largest economy in purchasing power parity terms, and has enjoyed high growth rates for over a decade rising to an average of over 8% per annum in the period 2004-7 (World Bank 2007).

On the other hand, India was ranked as 128th out of 177 countries on the human development index 2005 (UNDP 2005) which is a composite index based on life expectancy, literacy and education levels, and economic standard of living. Shocking statistics include the percentage of malnourished children under 5 being 46%, the adult female literacy rate as only 48%, and the percentage of the rural population using adequate sanitary services as 18% (World Bank 2007, UNICEF 2004). A major development issue, therefore, is whether India can seriously address the needs of all of its people, including the vast numbers of poor and uneducated in the rural areas and the urban slums. A related sub-question is whether, and to what extent, can ICTs be used to provide development benefits to all Indian citizens. There are increasing attempts to use technology in this way through projects such as e-government services and telecentres in poor areas.

Botany: Cashew belongs to the Family Aricardiaceae. A small evergreen tree native of tropical America from Mexico to Peru and Brazil but now cultivated largely in Malabar, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh and to some extend in Maharashtra, Goa, Odisha and West Bengal

The commercial production is mainly confined to India, Mozambique, Tanzania, Kenya; Brazil, Philippines, Malaysia and Sri Lanka.Cashew is an important foreign earning crop of India, remarking second (29%) in the international trade of the nuts. It is a crop of marginal lands and can be grown under rainfed conditions.

Soil and climate: It grows up well in all soils. Red sandy loam is best suited. Plains as well as hill slopes upto 600 - 700 feet elevation are suitable for cultivation. Season: June - December. Propagation: Soft wood grafting, air layer and epicotyl grafting. Requirement of plants: 200 plants/ha. Preparation of field: Pits of 45 cm3 size are dug and filled up with a mixture of soil + 10 kg FYM + one kg neem cake and 100 g Methyl parathion 1.3 %.

Cashew apple, a highly potential nutritional source, is almost entirely wasted now. In Goa, cashew apple juice is fermented and distilled for production of alcohol. Cashew apple is juicy and swollen. It is a rich reserve of vitamins and minerals. The cashew apple is the peduncle of the nut. Normally the apple is 8 to 10 fold large by weight compared to cashew nut, at ripe stage. Cashew apples can be of different size and shape. The ripe apple is very juicy and fibrous with thin skin. When fully ripe, it gets detached from the pedicel and falls down. In Brazil, cashew is a popular fresh fruit and dwarf types are being evaluated to fulfil the market requirements of fresh cashew apple in terms of red colour, high sugar, low tannin etc.

Global Scenario

Globally, India’s share in the cashew area and production is 20 per cent and 16 per cent, respectively. India occupies the largest area followed by Ivory Coast (19%), Brazil (16%), Indonesia (12%), Vietnam (7%), Nigeria (7%), Benin (5%), Guinea-Bissau (5%), Mozambique (2%) and Philippines (1%). The highest production was from Vietnam (30%) followed by Nigeria (19%), India (16%), Ivory Coast (11%), Brazil (5%), Indonesia (3%), Philippines (3%), Guinea-Bissau (3%), Benin (2%) and Mozambique (2%). Sometimes back, India was credited as largest producer, processor and exporter of cashew in the world but as other cashew producing countries also acquired the know-how of processing and entered in the international market, currently the India’s share in the International market has shrank to 30 per cent only. On the other hand, the domestic consumption in India has increased considerably, owing to largest consumption of cashew kernel. Every year, over 7-8 lakh tonnes of raw cashew nut are imported mainly from African countries and exporting cashew kernel to USA and UK after processing (Saroj, 2013).

Pattern of Growth Flushes in a Bearing Tree

Two or three peak periods of growth are usually observed in a bearing cashew tree, even though under favourable conditions the stray shoot growth may occur almost every month. The pattern of growth of a bearing tree consists of a generative flower flush (reproductive) and a vegetative flush. The vegetative flush, consisting of lateral shoots, always develops soon after the main crop has matured. Flowering is terminal and is universally preceded by the vegetative flush.

There are two types of branching in cashew, intensive and extensive.

Brief History of Cashew Nut Processing Industry in India

As is known in the Cashew Trade Circles, cashewnut was not an indigenous product of India. A few hundred years back, the Portuguese brought it to Goa in India, from Brazil. The Portuguese also took it to their other colonies in Africa viz. Mozambique on the East Coast and Angola on the West Coast. In Mozambique, it spread all over the territory i.e. from Lourenco in the South to Ibo in the North and thence to British East Africa (now Tanzania) and Kenya. Though, now it is known as cashewnut, still in Mozambique and India, it is known by its original Portuguese name ‘CAJU’.

Botanical Name : Anacardium occidentale L.
Family : Anacardiaceae 
Origin : North East Brazil in Latin America. 
Chromosome No. : 2n=2x=42
Type of fruit : Droup. 
Type of Inflorescence : Panicles (Both male and  hermaphrodite flowers occur on the same inflorescence)

The English name of cashewnut derives from the Portuguese name for the fruit of the cashew tree, Caju. It is native to the coastal areas of north-eastern Brazil. It was introduced in Goa by the Portuguese in the 16th century mainly to control soil erosion and to use in afforestation programmes but now it has become an important cash crop of Goa. The fruit of the cashew tree is an oval or pear-shaped accessory fruit known as ‘cashew apple’ sometimes called a pseudocarp or false fruit which develops from the receptacle of the cashew flower.  The cashew nut is a popular snack with a rich flavour that is often eaten on its own, lightly salted or sugared. Cashew nuts are also sold covered in chocolate. In Goa, the cashew apple is mashed and juice is extracted and kept for fermentation to prepare beverage called fenny. 

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is popularly called the ‘Gold mine’ of wasteland. It’s presumed that cashew was originally introduced into India by Portuguese travelers within the sixteenth century mainly for checking erosion on the coast. Initially, it absolutely was considered as an acceptable crop for conservation, afforestation and wasteland development but gradually gained the commercial importance.

Area and Distribution

In India cashew is being grown in an area of 10.62 lakh hectares with total production of 8.17 lakh MT of raw nuts and unit area productivity of 753 kg/ha. India is that the largest producer of raw cashew contributing around 20 per cent of total production of the globe. The foremost distribution of cashew in India is within the states of Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, and Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Andra Pradesh and Orissa along the geographic region and a few extents within the states of state, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat and North East states. The assembly and productivity of the cashew is highest within the states of Maharashtra. The best average productivity of the Maharashtra is about 1318 kg/ha followed by West Bengal and Kerala in country. India is that the major exporter of cashew Kernels and earns a large amount of overseas exchange to the tune of `5,871 crores each year. The country exports cashew kernel to quite sixty countries mainly to USA, UAE, Netherlands, Saudi Arabia and Japan. A complete of 1.19 lakh MT of cashew kernels was exported to those countries additionally to other byproducts like cashew shell liquids etc. (Anonymous, 2017–18). India is also the second largest exporter of shelled cashew (kernels) in the world and follows Vietnam.

Cashew research in India dates back to 1950’s when Indian Council of Agricultural Research sanctioned ad-hoc schemes in the then composite Madras, Travancore, Cochin and Bombay States. Thus, Kottarakkara (Kerala) in 1952; Ullal (Karnataka in 1953 and Vengurla (Maharashtra) in 1957 came into being as pioneering cashew centres in the country. More research schemes were started with ICAR’s assistance in 1955 at Bapatla (Andhra Pradesh) and in 1956 at Deragaon (now shifted to Kothiali) in Assam. During the period, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore and National Chemical Laboratory, Pune were also engaged in developing technologies for economic utilisation of cashew apple and Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL). In the second phase of strengthening cashew research in India, the ICAR started All India Spices and Cashewnut Improvement Project in 1971 linking countrywide network among different research centres. Collection, conservation and evaluation of germplasm, hybridization and selection, vegetative propagation, and nutritional studies were the primary areas under this programme.

Maharashtra, the first state was to release cashew variety under the name Vengurla-1 through Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth, Dapoli in the year 1974. So far, 8 varieties have been released from Regional Fruit Research Station, Vengurla (M.S.), of which, Vengurla-4, Vengurla-6, Vengurla-7 and Vengurla-8 are widely accepted for commercial plantation.

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is an export-oriented crop grown for its nuts, a true drupe. Often referred as ‘wonder nut’, it is highly delicious and nutritive. Its nutritional composition compares well with almond, hazel nut and walnut. It is a zero-cholesterol nut with high content of unsaturated fatty acids, proteins and carbohydrates with a right combination of amino acids, vitamins and minerals. Kernels extracted from nuts are often consumed as such or used in confectionery items and various kinds of dishes. Kernel oil of pale yellow colour is used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) extracted from its shell has many industrial applications - for making paints, resins, flame-retardants, etc. Testa covering the kernel, rich in tannin, can be an acceptable substitute for wattle bark tannin in leather industry. Cashew apple, the pseudo-fruit, is rich in vitamin C. It is used to cure scurvy, diarrhea, uterine complaints and dropsy.

The Tea mosquito bug : Helopeltis antonii : Miridae

The host range of this bug also includes tea, neem, moringa and guava. The attack can cause inflorescence blight, terminal drying of young shoots and heavy yield loss. The adult is a reddish brown bug with black head, red thorax, and black and white abdomen. The easiest identifying character for this pest is a pin like process on the scutellum mid dorsally on the thorax. It is reddish brown, erect and knobbed, and would seem as a pin inserted into the scutellum.

Genus : Anacardium 
Species : occidentale L.
Family : Anacardiaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n =42

This delicious nut fruit of family Anacardiaceae is unique in number of ways firstly for fruits brilliant shades of colour (yellow to dark red-scarlet) characteristic aroma makes it one of the most enticing of tropical fruits. Secondly it multiplies and grows very fast and produces in abundance its attractive handsome fruits. Thirdly the cashew fruit is very peculiar for at the first look the swollen peduncle and disc (cashew apple) is taken to be the real fruit, a fact which is not true. The real fruit of commerce is the kidney shaped nut attached to the lower portion of the cashew apple. The English name cashew is adapted from Portuguese word ‘Caju’. India is one of the major cashew producer and exporter.

• Cashew kernel contains 47% fat, 21% protein and 22% carbohydrates.
• Cashew kernel does not have cholesterol.
• Collection of fallen nuts is known as Gllining.
• India is the largest producer as well exporter of raw cashew nut.
• The USA is the largest importer of cashew nut kernels in the world.
• Cashew is restricted to altitude below 700 m where the temperature does not fall below 20°C for prolong period.
• pH more than 8.0 is not suitable for its commercial cultivation.
• Pruning period: August-September
• Steam method is the most popular method of roasting.
• Best quality whole kernels kernels are obtained from drum roasting.
• Maximum recovery of oil is done using oil bath roasting.
• Inflorescence: Polygamomonocious
• Cashew nut is the III most important agriculture commodity exported from India.
• Broma dryer is a commonly used drier for drying of the kernel.
• The moisture content of the dried kernelranges between 2% to 4%.

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is a native of Brazil and was introduced in India by the Portuguese during the16th Century. It is grown in India, Brazil, Vietnam, Tanzania, Mozambique,
Indonesia, Sri Lanka and other tropical Asian and African countries. The crop is grown within the latitudinal belt of 27°N and 28°S of the equator experiencing the tropical climates for its growth and development. It is categorised under one of the plantations along the West and East Coasts. To a limited extent cashew is cultivated in Gujarat, Chattisgarh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The crop is mostly grown in low and midlands along the West and East Coasts of India in sandy and laterite soils. Since it is mostly grown along the Coast across the Country it is also known as the Coastal Tree. Cashew grows along the West and East Coasts of India from South to North, lying between 09°N and 23oN latitudes. Though it grows beyond 23°N latitude, its production is relatively low as the reproductive phase coincides with cold injury/low temperature during
winter (December-February). Being a tropical coastal tree, it cannot thrive under low winter temperature. There is significant yield variation in cashew among the different agroclimatic zones of the country. Year-to-year yield variation is also significant as the crop is weather sensitive. This crop may come up even in waste lands with specific crop management practices along the West Coast and as a shelter belt and wind break along the East Coast.

6.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of America and Brazil.

• Introduced in India during later half of the Sixteenth Century.

• In 2017, Vietnam, India, and Ivory Coast were the major producers.

• Cultivated in Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Odisha, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal; also in few pockets of Assam, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura.

• Cashew is called gold mine of waste lands.

6.2. Economic importance

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale), is an evergreen tree in the family Anacardiaceae. It is grown for its edible fruits (nuts). Cashew originates from North-East Brazil (Salam and Peter, 2010). As a fast growing woody perennial, is characterized by spreading branches. Cashew trees can reach a height of 12 m and have an economic lifespan of 25 years. A Canopy of cashew develops irregular if not checked properly. In later stage, its canopy shape and size become difficult to manage (Nalini et al., 1999). Manipulation of canopy size and shape by means of pruning and training for its containment and better yield was not felt as a necessary orchard management technique for cashew. Majority of the older plantations are of seedling origin of non-descript material and have poor genetic potentiality. They have become senile. Such plantations can be rejuvenated provided they are managed properly and not very old (Gurupasand et al., 2012). If the plantations are of improved varieties having good genetic make-up such plantations can be rejuvenated by limb pruning or if they are genetically low yielders they need to be top-worked by beheading and grafting with better material for improving the yield performance.

Cashewnut, Anacardium occidentale is one of the important plantation crops grown for its delicious kernel. It is mostly grown in coastal belts of South-West and South-East India including the states like Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal and also in the non-traditional areas including inlands of central India and parts of Northeastern regions. It is an important cash crop and has attained the status of export-oriented commodity. In India alone around 200 insect pests have been reported on cashew causing damage during different stages of crop growth. Stem and root borer and Tea mosquito bugs, blossom webber and leafminer pests of economic importance, the details of which is given hereunder:

Stem and root borer, Plocaederus ferrugineus L. and P. obesus Gahan (Cerambycidae: Coleoptera)

It is a very serious pest of cashew in both east and west coasts of India. It is also recorded on sapota, drumstick and citrus trees. Among the two species, P. ferrugineus is the commonly occurring species. Eggs are pale white, ovoid and smooth measuring about 4.5 x 2.0mm. The grubs are stout, fleshy ivory yellow with dark brown head and wrinkled body without legs, and measures 75mm in length, when full grown. The adult of P. ferrugineus is a medium sized (2540mm) dark brown longicorn beetle

Cassava scale : Aonidomytilus albus: Diaspididae

White elongated scales appear in colonies on stems. Plants die in the field and under storage.  Stem becomes weak and dry, causing side branching to give bushy appearance.  Viability of planting material is reduced, resulting in poor establishment.

Cassava (Syn: Tapioca) Manihot esculenta (Crantz) (2n = 2x = 36) (Hindi : Mravuli) is perennial shrub cultivated in tropics for its starchy tuberous roots. It is one of important tuber crops cultivated in tropics because of its high carbohydrate yield per unit land and labour and its adaptation to poor soil and water stress and its tolerance to dominant pest and diseases. Cassava contains cyanide, the toxic principle which limits food and feed value. In cassava the glycoside linamarin and lotaustralin are converted to hydrocyanic acid, a potent toxin, when come in contact with linamerase, an enzyme that is released from rupture of cells. Tuber peel contain significantly higher amount of glycosides than the pulp. It can be removed by cooking in water for about 5 minutes.

Introduction

Castor plant (Ricinus communis L) is an age old crop of India which has been in use in Ayurvedic medicine since 2000 BC, when the oil was used in lamps and also in local medicine particularly as a laxative and also to cure arthritis. The seeds of the crop yield non-edible viscous oil which has a number of applications in industry apart from its medicinal properties, which are well documented in Ayurvedic, Siddha and Unani medicine. The word Ricinus in the scientific name of the castor plant has cropped due to the appearance of its seed resembling dog’s tick!

Castor is cultivated on commercial scale in an area of 1,296,855 ha in 30 countries with global castor seed production at 1,396,104 MT (FAO STAT, 2019). India is the world’s single largest producer of castor seed accounting for more than 85% followed by China with about 7% and Brazil with about 5% of world castor seed output. There has been a consistent increase in output primarily on account of rise in yield levels in India. In recent years, however, Brazil and China have experienced stagnation in castor crop. Castor is widely grown in Ethiopia too. Among oilseed crops of India, castor crop has registered positive and high growth rate along with soybean (Mohapatra 2017).

Introduction 
Castor bean (Ricinus communis L.) is a species of annual and perennial flowering plant in the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae (USDA, 2016). It is the sole species in the monotypic genus, Ricinus, and subtribe, Ricininae. The evolution of castor and its relation to other species are currently being studied using modern genetic tools (Institute for Genome Sciences, 2009). Castor reproduces with a mixed pollination system that favors selfing by geitonogamy but can also be pollinated by wind (anemophily) or insects (entomophily) (Rizzardo et al.,2012). Native to the southeastern Mediterranean Basin, Eastern Africa, and India, castor is now widespread throughout tropical regions (Phillips & Rix, 2002). The plant is known for its seeds, which contain 40-60% oil, primarily composed of triglycerides such as ricinolein. However, the seeds also contain ricin, a watersoluble toxin present in lower concentrations throughout the plant. Ricinus communis exhibits significant variability in its growth habit and appearance, with cultivars selected for leaf and flower colours as well as oil production. Castor bean is a fast-growing shrub that can reach up to 12 meters in height, although it is not cold hardy. Its stems spherical, spiny seed capsules also vary in pigmentation. In some varieties, the fruit capsules are more attractive than the flowers. Ongoing research aims to better understand the plant’s evolution and its relationship to other species, while its unique characteristics and diverse uses make it an important subject of study. The monoecious castor plant bears unisexual male and female flowers in terminal panicle-like inflorescences (Fig :1). Male flowers are yellowish-green with creamy stamens, while fewer female flowers have prominent red stigmas (Oliver and Lee, 2010). The spiny capsule fruit contains large, oval, poisonous seeds with a caruncle that aids ant-mediated dispersal. Improving castor bean (Ricinus communis) cultivation for biodiesel production involves a combination of genetic, agronomic, and technological strategies aimed at enhancing yield, oil quality and sustainability. Genetic improvement focuses on developing high-yielding and disease-resistant varieties through traditional breeding, molecular techniques like marker-assisted selection (MAS), and advanced tools such as CRISPR-Cas9 for targeted gene editing. Efforts are directed at optimizing oil content, improving fatty acid profiles for biodiesel, and reducing toxins like ricin. Agronomic practices play a crucial role, including the adoption of efficient planting densities, intercropping systems, and soil and

I. FILL UPS

1. Castor seeds contain _____ % oil.
2. The castor is rich in which triglycerides _____.
3. _____is a toxin present in castor seed.
4. Castor is a _____ crop.

Castration means removal of the testicles and there are two methods of castration in domestic animals viz. closed and open method.

1. Closed method

In closed method, without incision, the spermatic cord is crushed where thrombus is formed which arrest blood flow to the testicles resulting in gradual atrophy of the testicles. ex. Burdizzo method

It is a monotypic or unigeneric family represented by four genera containing about 91 species distributed mainly in north-east Australia and also in Fiji, New Caledonia, Malaysia and Mascarene islands. Only one species (Casuarina equisetifolia) occurs in India, and this is the most common species of the world.
Selected Genera
Casuarina, Gymnostoma, Allocasuarina, Ceuthostoma.
Economic Importance
Casuarina is important mainly as timber tree. The wood of C. equisetifolia, C. cunningbamia and C. stricta is used for furniture, for fuel and also for basket making. The bark of C. suberosa and C. stricta is utilized for tanning. C. equisetifolia is usually grown as an ornamental and also in order to reclaim sandy dunes in India and several countries.

Agricultural meteorology stands as a cornerstone discipline in ensuring global food security, optimizing resource utilization, and fostering sustainable agricultural practices. In an era marked by increasing climate variability and the profound impacts of long-term climate change, the need for a dynamic and forward-thinking research agenda in this field has never been more critical. This chapter serves as a roadmap, outlining a comprehensive research agenda for the new generation of agricultural meteorologists, one that directly confronts the escalating challenges while strategically capitalizing on the unprecedented opportunities offered by technological advancements and enhanced data availability.
• The complexities introduced by a rapidly changing climate – characterized by more frequent and intense extreme weather events, shifts in growing seasons, and altered pest and disease patterns – demand innovative research approaches. Simultaneously, breakthroughs in sensor technology, remote sensing capabilities, data analytics, artificial intelligence, and communication platforms present unprecedented opportunities to revolutionize how we monitor, understand, predict, and respond to the intricate interactions between weather, climate, and agricultural systems.
• A well-defined and meticulously managed research agenda is paramount to effectively channel our collective scientific efforts. It provides a framework for identifying critical knowledge gaps, prioritizing research endeavors, fostering collaboration across disciplines, and ultimately, maximizing the impact of our investigations. Strategic research management ensures the efficient allocation of resources, promotes rigorous scientific inquiry, facilitates the seamless translation of research findings into practical, onthe- ground solutions, and informs evidence-based policy decisions that can bolster the resilience and productivity of the agricultural sector.
• Recognizing the diverse ecosystem of researchers who contribute to the advancement of agricultural meteorology, it is imperative to delineate specific research areas that are both relevant and achievable for individuals at various stages of their academic and professional journeys. This chapter will therefore provide a clear demarcation of research avenues suitable for Masters students seeking foundational research experiences, doctoral

(A) Anatomy of Lens

The lens is anoptically clear, avascular, biconvex structure of crystalline appearance with an anterior surfaceless curved than the posterior surface, placed between the iris and the vitreous. It is suspended by the suspensory ligament of the lens which is attached to the ciliary body and equator of the lens.

The lens consists of a central nucleus surrounded by the lens fibres and anterior epithelium, encapsulated in an elastic lens capsule. The anterior surface of the lens is in contact with the posterior surface of the iris whereas posterior surface is in contact with the vitreous. As the adult lens does not have a blood supply, its metabolic needs are met by the aqueous humour. The lens is composed of 65% water, 35% protein with scant amounts of electrolytes. The proteins can besubdivided into soluble proteins,

It all started after the famous lecture, “There is plenty of room at the bottom” given by Richard Feynman on December 29, 1959. Nanomaterials are intermediate between macroscopic solid and of atomic and molecular systems. Nanomaterials have certain properties which make them different from that of the bulk materials, including large fraction of surface atoms, high surface energy, spatial confinement, and reduced imperfections. Nanotechnology deals with various structures of matter having dimensions of the order of a billionth of a meter (Ray Unmesha. 2018). From the advent of nanotechnology, people realized that certain materials can exhibit different properties based on its size and shape.
 

Livestock feeds have a variety of feed stuffs for feeding. Composition and characteristics differ even amongcloselyrelated feeds.Also, cost and availability of such feeds at a particular place, makes the farmer to choose for practical feeding. Therefore, it becomes imperative to learn about such classes. Feeds may generally be classified according to the amount of a specific nutrient they provide intheration. Theymayconvenientlybe divided intotwo general classes– roughages and concentrates. Roughages are bulky feeds containing more than 18 per cent crude fibre, but less than 60 per cent total digestible nutrients. Contrary to this, concentrates have less than 18 per cent fibre, but more than 60 per cent total digestible nutrients. Roughages may be further sub-divided intosucculent and drytypes.Whereas, concentratesare sub-dividedintoEnergy or basal feeds havingless than 20 percent crude protein and Protein supplements havingmorethan 20percent crude protein. Followingfeeds indicate theoutlines of classification [Flow chart 1] of the conventional feeds into broad categories with examples.

9.1 Introduction

Phytochemicals are the individual chemicals from which the plants are made. Phytochemical is simply a word that means plant chemicals. Plants have the ability to synthesize mixtures of structurally diverse bioactive compounds with multiple and mutually potential therapeutic effects. The plants have the capacity of manufacturing the secondary products. Phytochemicals with antioxidant properties tend to be brightly colored because they contain chromophores, ie, a series of alternating single-bonded and double-bonded carbons. Isoprene is often the building block of such units. The darkest green vegetables contain the most chlorophyll, and vegetables with the most chlorophyll require the most antioxidants. Green will mask the other colors, when other-colored antioxidant phytochemicals are present. Hundreds of phytochemicals are currently being studied. Many are believed to have a major positive impact on human health (Duke and Sternberg, 2005). Important plant secondary metabolites have been isolated over a period of time from natural sources. The phytochemical may belong to the following categories : Terpenoids, Phenolic compounds, Alkaloids, Glycosides, Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic acids, etc. Some of the phytochemicals from the plants are listed in Table 9.1 and structures of some of them are given in Fig.9.1.

Phytochemicals are the individual chemicals from which the plants are made. Phytochemical is simply a word that means plant chemicals. Plants have the ability to synthesize mixtures of structurally diverse bioactive compounds with multiple and mutually potential therapeutic effects. The plants have the capacity of manufacturing the secondary products. Phytochemicals with antioxidant properties tend to be brightly colored because they contain chromophores, ie, a series of alternating single-bonded and double-bonded carbons. Isoprene is often the building block of such units. The darkest green vegetables contain the most chlorophyll, and vegetables with the most chlorophyll require the most antioxidants.

Catheterization is done for both diagnostic as well as therapeutic purpose. As a diagnostic technique it is employed to collect urine samples, prostatic wash and suction biopsy. As a therapeutic technique it is used for the treatment of urine retention, obstruction and for monitoring urine output. Pneumocystography is a contrast radiography. It is being employed to distinguish the urinary bladder from other organs and to visualize the details of the bladder.

Catheterization

An appropriate catheter needs to be selected as per the requirement (purpose of catheterization and duration of catheterization). A soft, silicone flexible catheter is appropriate for indwelling purpose. Whereas a rigid catheter is more desirable to unblock a small calculi and collecting samples for diagnostic purpose. Small size catheters are best in order to minimize urethral trauma.

Ion exchange is a reversible process by which a cation or anion held on the solid phase is exchanged with another cation or anion in the liquid phase. Soil mineral and organic colloidal particles have negative valence charges that hold dissociable cations. The power to retain cations at the surface of soil colloids is referred to as the cation exchange capacity (CEC). Cation exchange is a reversible reaction in soil solution, dependent upon negative charges of soil components arising from permanently charged or pH-dependent sites on organic matter and mineral colloid surfaces. The CEC is the sum of cations held by a kilogram of soil and is expressed in Cmol (p₊)/kg soil. In most agricultural soils, the cation-exchange capacity (CEC) is generally higher than the anion exchange capacity (AEC).

4.1 INTRODUCTION

All soil components contribute in some measure to cation exchange. The source, extent, and quality of the contribution of each to the cation exchange capacity is varied and complex. Ocasionally, reactions between components alter the extent and quality of cation exchange. Also, in some this is strongly influenced by the pH of the soil-water complex, and the electrolyte content of the soil solution. Indeed, when ‘simple and rapid’ methods, empirical or allegedly fundamental in origin, appear in the literature, they must be viewed circumspectly. Mostly, they provide an incomplete, or a one-sided, picture of the phenomenon. To justify his invention, the experimenter usually provides correlations with other intrinsic soil properties (e.g. the concentration by weight and the mineralogy of the <2 jxm particles, the organic matter content, the surface area) or with the reaction of soil with its environment (e.g. plant growth and composition). However convincing such statistical parameters might be for the population of soils investigated, they do not help elucidate, and may indeed mask, the true extent and quality of cation exchange.

This chapter deals with current views on the sources, extent and quality of cation exchange, and with comprehensive methods for evaluating these. The relationship between the properties thus observed and values obtained from simple and rapid procedures is considered.

Important features

• Cattle produce 81% of world milk production, followed by buffaloes with 15 percent, goats with 2 percent and sheep with 1 percent; camels provide 0.5 percent. The remaining share is produced by other dairy species such as equines and yaks.

• About one-third of milk production in developing countries comes from buffaloes, goats, camels and sheep. In developed countries, almost all milk is produced by cattle.

• Milk from dairy species other than cattle represents 40 percent of milk production in Asia, 23 percent in Africa, 3 percent in Europe and 0.5 percent in the Americas; it is almost non-existent in Oceania (FAO)

Taxonomy of Cattle

Cattle belong to the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class Mammalia, order Artiodactyla, family Bovidae, genus Bos, and species taurus or indicus. Cattle were originally identified by Carolus Linnaeus as three separate species: Bos taurus, Bos indicus, and Bos primigenius. Bovines, which include cattle, bison, African buffalo, water buffalos, and certain antelopes, belong to the subfamily Bovinae.

Cattleya belongs to the family Orchidaceae. It is highly important in floriculture and has been cultivated since the 19^th century. The name “Cattleya” was given in the honour of “Sir William Cattley”. Cattleyas have earned the reputation as the “Queen of Orchids” and are known to the public as the ultimate in floral corsages. While no longer the reigning queen of the orchid floral industry it is difficult not to be impressed by a well-flowered Cattleya. No longer limited to white and various shades of lavender and purple, high quality flowers occur in all colours except true blue and black and in a wide range of plant sizes. They are widely known for their large, showy flowers and were used extensively in hybridization for the cut-flower trade until the 1980s when pot plants became more popular.

Cattleya belongs to the family Orchidaceae. It is highly important in floriculture and has been cultivated since the 19^th century. The name “Cattleya” was given in the honour of “Sir William Cattley”. Cattleyas have earned the reputation as the “Queen of Orchids” and are known to the public as the ultimate in floral corsages. While no longer the reigning queen of the orchid floral industry it is difficult not to be impressed by a well-flowered Cattleya. No longer limited to white and various shades of lavender and purple, high quality flowers occur in all colours except true blue and black and in a wide range of plant sizes. They are widely known for their large, showy flowers and were used extensively in hybridization for the cut-flower trade until the 1980s when pot plants became more popular.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The genus was named in 1824 by John Lindley after Sir William Cattley who received and was the first to bloom a specimen of Cattleya labiata. William Swainson had discovered the new plant in Pernambuco, Brazil, in 1817 and shipped to the Glasgow Botanic Gardens for identification. After the first importation from Mr. Swainson, no more plants similar to the original Cattleya labiata were discovered for many decades, although many varieties of this species were found. Each variety differed in some way from the plant of Mr. Cattley, either in colour, blooming season or some similar horticultural aspect. Brazil is the centre of distribution, where more than half the species are found (Pabst and Dungs, 1975 and Cruz et al., 2003). They are found naturally only in the western hemisphere, occurring along with Laelias in three major regions of Tropical America i.e. Mexico and Guatemala, northern part of South America from the western Cordilleras of Colombia to British Guiana and the maritime provinces of southern Brazil. Within these three large regions are found most of the species of Cattleya except for C. dowiana in Costa Rica and C. skinneri var. autumnalis from Panama. The plants occur at considerable elevation where the mean temperature is much lower than the mean temperature for the latitude at sea level.

The caudal vena cava is a large unpaired vein which receives blood from the pelvis, pelvic limbs, mammary glands (in females) and scrotum (in males), the abdominal walls, and the viscera of the abdomen and pelvis. It is formed under the body of the fifth or sixth lumbar vertebra by the union of two common iliac veins which in their turn are formed by the union of the internal iliac and external iliac veins of the corresponding side. It passes cranially in the sublumbar region lying slightly to the right of the median plane and to the right of the abdominal aorta. In the cranial part of the abdomen, it follows the abdominal surface of the diaphragm and is embedded in the liver prior to its entry into the thorax through the foramen vena cava in the diaphragm.

In its abdominal course, the caudal vena cava is related dorsally to the sublumbar muscles and right crus of the diaphragm, ventrally to the colon, pancreas and the liver, on its right to the right kidney and the right adrenal and on its left to the abdominal part of the aorta.

Tributaries of caudal vena cava

The common iliac veins are short vessels formed by the union of the internal and the external iliac veins. These are located at the level of the fifth or sixth lumbar vertebra. The left vein crosses the dorsal surface of the aorta to reach the vena cava.

Botany

Cauliflower is highly cross pollinated crop due to self incompatibility. Flower is protogynous in nature. Stigma remains receptive 5 days before and 4 days after opening of the flower. The time taken from pollination to fertilization is 248 hours depending upon the temperature. The optimum temperature for fertilization and seed development is 12°C – 18°C. Bees are the major pollinators.

Method of seed production: There are two methods of seed production

1. in situ method (seed to seed method)
2. Transplanting method (Head to seed method)

For seed production, seed to seed method is recommended since the head to seed method in India has not been very successful. In seed to seed method (In situ method) the crop is allowed to over winter and produce seed in the original position, where they are first planted in the seedling stage.

Cauliflower
Cauliflower, Brassica oleracea L var. botrytis under the family Brassicaceae (Cruciferae) having chromosome No. 2n = 2x =18 is the most popular vegetable among the cole crops, particularly in Asia. It is grown in all continents of the world,= of which Asia is the leading one followed by Europe and covers small acerages in North America, South America, Africa, Australia and New Zealand. India and China together have about 60 % of total cauliflower area of the world. Cauliflower is used in different curry and fry preparations with potato, garden pea, sweet pepper and other vegetables. It contains high quality proteins and good in stability of vitamin C after
cooking. Frozen products are also prepared from cauliflower. It is rich in minerals such as potassium, sodium, iron, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, etc.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
The cole crops have originated from the wild diploid species Brassica oleracea var. sylvestris mainly by mutation, human selection and adaptation. This wild species, a leafy kale-like plant which occurs in the northern shore of the Mediterranean Sea an along the lime cliffs in north-eastern England and North Sea is the progenitor of th cultivated kale and leafy non-heading cabbage. Probably kale was the first cole crop to have selected and adapted by man. From this leafy kale-like plant (Brassica oleracea var. sylvestris), other cole crops viz., kale, collard, broccoli, cauliflower and cabbage have been descended.

Cauliflower follows cabbage in importance with regard to area and production in the world. However in India Cauliflower is more widely grown than cabbage. This crop grows at a latitude 11°N to 60°N with average temperature ranging from 5- 8°C to 25-28°C. It can stand to the temperature as low as -10°C and as high as 40°C for a few days. Italy and India are the major countries growing CF on large scale. Important cauliflower growing states in India are UP, Karnataka, West Bengal, Punjab and Bihar. It is commonly grown in Northern Himalayas and Niligiri hills in south.

Origin and Distribution: Cauliflower is thought to have been domesticated in the Mediterranean region since, the greater range of variability in the wild types of B.oleracea is found there (Nieuwhof, 1969). Wild Cole warts are still found in wild state in sea cost of England and Denmark and in the North West France and various localities from Greece to Great Britain. The Cole crops, including cauliflower and cabbage have descended from a common Kale like ancestor, the wild cabbage (B.olearcea var. sylvestris L.) which is still found in western and southern Europe and North Africa (i.e, sea coasts of England and Denmark and in North West France and various localities from Greece to Great Britain). Cyprus and area around Mediterranean courts are considered to be the primary centers of origin for Cauliflower. It is also reported that cauliflower is originated from a related species. B.cretica. As per Bosewell (1949), it originated in the islands of Cyprus from where it moved to other areas like Syria, Turkey, Egypt, Italy, Spain and North Western Europe. Cornish types originated in England fallowed by temperate types originated in Germany and Netherlands in 18th century. The present Indian tropical cauliflowers developed as a result of intercrossing between European and Cornish type. In India tropical types with resistance to high temp and high rainfall conditions have been developed. Tropical types are grown in Indian plains from May to September, followed by temperate types known as snowball cauliflower.

Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis, 2n = 2x = 18, Family Brassicaceae, cross-pollinated, sporophytic self-incompatibility) is traditional European crop that has become widespread in Asia. As per Horticulture Statistics at a Glance-2018, published by Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India (MAFW, 2018), during 2016, global production of cauliflower and broccoli was 25.23 million tons from 1.34 million ha with a productivity of 18.82 tons/ha. Bulk of area and production (>70%) was accounted for by China, I rank (0.52 million ha area, 10.26 million tons production, 19.73 tons/ha productivity) and India, II rank (0.43 million ha area, 8.20 million tons production, 19.0 tons/ha productivity). Other countries in the descending order were USA, Spain, Mexico, Italy, France, Poland, Pakistan and Egypt.

Within India, as per 2017-18 figures, top 10 cauliflower growing states are West Bengal (74, 000 ha), Bihar (62, 000 ha), MP (46, 000 ha), Orissa (41, 000 ha), Haryana (40, 000 ha), Gujarat (25, 000 ha), Chhattisgarh (24, 000 ha), Jharkhand (22, 000 ha), UP (18, 000 ha) and Punjab (18, 000).

The low productivity of perennial fruits has been attributed to various factors, like small size of holdings, preponderance of old and senile trees and poor management of inputs such as water, nutrients and pesticides. Thickly-shaded mango orchards in Malihabad areas of Uttar Pradesh (Kalloo et al., 2005; Mishra, 2013), lanky as well as sick tall unproductive litchi orchards in Muzaffarpur and its adjoining areas in Bihar (Kumar, 2008), seedling orchards of guava and citrus fruits throughout the country, including disease-affected aonla and other perennial fruit plantations are commonly seen in large tracts in different parts of the country (Pandey et al., 2013; Singh 2007). In pomegranate, the old orchards become non- productive due to incidence of pests and diseases, and negligence (Hiwale, 2009).

The traditional trend of orcharding for most of the tropical and subtropical evergreen perennial fruit trees, in general, are regarded as not responsive to pruning. However, a number of observations made in recent decades have conclusively proved the effectiveness of this important operation in maintaining the sustained fruit yield and keeping the plant well within manageable limits. The efforts have been made to deal perennial fruits in quite details wherever deemed necessary. Climatic factors have been found to affect significantly on fruit bearing as a result of pruning treatments. Though, this aspect is one of the most misconceived and least understood when seen with shoot emergence and shoot physiology for perenation and phase change from vegetative to reproductive. Correct pruning may easily spell the difference between success and failure, yet many growers undertake infinite pains to get the best out of their trees but the neglect to give their consideration to important practice. It is obviously needless to mention here that their such efforts end in futility. For better understanding of principles and practices of pruning, it would be imperative to trace out its historical background. The present level of understanding about pruning has been developed through ages with the increased understanding of growth and developmental processes of fruit plants.

Introduction: Indoor Air Pollution

People think that while they are indoors, they are breathing clean air. After all, pollution is found outside, and indoor air is filtered through the HVAC system.

Indoor air can have significantly higher concentrations of pollution than air found outside. Plenty of evidences exists. Global Burden of Disease Risk lists indoor air pollution as the ninth biggest health risk.

7.1. Rural Poverty in Nigeria

The Federal Republic of Nigeria has a population of more than 160 million - the largest in Africa - and a fast-growing economy. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy, contributing about 40 per cent of GDP. The agriculture sector employs approximately two-thirds of the country’s total labour force and provides a livelihood for about 90 per cent of the rural population. Nigeria is the world’s largest producer of cassava, yam and cowpea - all staple foods in sub-Saharan Africa. It is also a major producer of fish. Yet it is a food-deficit nation and imports large amounts of grain, livestock products and fish. Nigeria’s huge agricultural resource base offers great potential for growth. Recent government policies have started to show results: The agricultural sector reportedly grew by 7 per cent a year between 2003 and 2007, and at a slightly lower rate in recent years. Still, the area of land under cultivation could be doubled. Of an estimated 71 million hectares of arable land, only about half is presently under production. And there is substantial scope for an increase in irrigation, which now covers only 7 per cent of irrigable land. Irrigation and other inputs would substantially increase average yields for major staple crops, which are below those in other developing countries.

Despite Nigeria’s plentiful agricultural resources and oil wealth, poverty is widespread in the country and has increased since the late 1990s. Some 70 per cent of Nigerians live on less than US$1.25 a day. Poverty is especially severe in rural areas, where up to 80 per cent of the population lives below the poverty line, and social services and infrastructure are limited. The country’s poor rural women and men depend on agriculture for food and income. About 90 per cent of Nigeria’s food is produced by small-scale farmers who cultivate small plots of land and depend on rainfall rather than irrigation systems. The poorest groups eke out a subsistence living but often go short of food, particularly during the pre-harvest period. The productivity of the rural population is also hindered by ill health, particularly HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria.