eChapters

Frequency Distribution: A tabular presentation of the data in which the fre- quencies of values of a variable are given along with them is called a frequen- cy distribution. Two types of frequency distribution are available

1. Discrete Frequency Distribution or Ungrouped Frequency Distribution
2. Continuous Frequency Distribution or Grouped Frequency Distribution

Objective (a): Prepare a discrete frequency distribution from the following sentence in English: “Today there is hardly a phase of Endeavour which does not find statistical devices at least occasionally useful.”

Theory: This problem relates to discrete frequency distribution i. e. a frequency distribution which is formed by distinct values of a discrete or continuous variable.

The paddy grain contains a rough outer covering called husk. It accounts for about one-fifth to one - fourth of the weight of paddy. The inner kernel, called brown rice or dehusked rice, again contains some soft outer layers, jointly called bran. It accounts for about 6-8% of the brown rice weight, including the small germ (1-2% by weight) located in one corner. Rice milling is the process of removing the husk and a part of the bran from paddy in order to produce edible rice. Rice milling system ranges from the home-scale to the large, complex modern rice-processing installations. They include hand-pounding equipment, single hullers, emery sheller-cum-huller mills, emery sheller-cum-cone polisher mills and the modern rubber – roller rice mills. Rice milling industry does not only mill rice but it also carries many other essential functions, such as cleaning and grading, drying, storage, quality control etc. for the production of better quality rice. All these processes are discussed in this paper.

Unlike other food grains, rice is mostly consumed as cooked whole grain, Milling technology is therefore geared to obtain maximum outturn of milled rice and to reduce breakage to the minimum. The single huller mills are by and large located in villages or in localities where paddy is custom milled for produces and they still handle the bulk of the country’s production. The large-capacity rice mills located in urban or semi-urban areas for commercial milling are of ½ to 4 tones per hour capacity and handle the rest of the paddy milled. Some battery hullers are still in operation as large commercial mills, specially for milling parboiled paddy.

The disease is seen at 3-4 leaves stage. Scattered, irregular, yellowish patches appear on the upper surface of the leaves and stipules. On the corresponding under surface of these patches, a greyish violet fi ne cottony mildew growth is seen. Infected tissue soon dies and turns brown. The disease fi rst appears on lower leaves and later spreads to upper leaves.

Pressure cookers are pans made of Aluminum or stainless steel. They are available in different sizes. The pressure cooker was invented in the seventeenth century by the physicist Denis Papin, and works by expelling air from the vessel, and trapping the steam produced from the boiling liquid inside. This raises the internal pressures and permits higher cooking temperatures. This, together with high thermal heat transfer from the steam, cooks food far more quickly, often cooking in between half and a quarter the time for conventional boiling. After cooking, the steam pressure is lowered back to ambient atmospheric pressure, so that the vessel can be opened safely.

1.0. Objectives

• To illustrate the importance of using idioms in colloquial language
• To point out how idioms amplify the meaning of pieces of mind
• To make out how one can skip from a direct projection of ideas with the help of idioms
• To provide the knowledge of some significant idioms

2.0 Idiom

An idiom is an expression or articulation that generally presents an allegorical, different from its literal meaning appended to the phrases; however, a few phrases become metaphorical sayings while holding the strict importance of the literal expression. Sorted as predictable language, an idiom’s meaning is not quite the same as the imparting meaning. An idiom is an essential part of any language which shows the originality of language and its expression.

β-glucans are carbohydrates made of complex glucose polymers that provides the major structure found in the cell wall of yeast, fungi, algae, and cereal grains such as oats and barley. The structures of β-glucans vary depending on the original source and the type of linkages present on the glucose polymers. β-glucans consist of a backbone of glucose molecules linked at the 1 and 3 carbon atoms (Jacob and Pescatore, 2017). The six-sided glucose rings are connected together in linear or branched forms with glycosidic linkages. The structure of these glycosidic linkages will affect the functionality of the β-glucan molecules.

Introduction

A forest is a complex ecosystem, predominantly composed of trees and shrubs, which usually form a closed canopy. They form a storehouse of a large variety of life forms such as plants, mammals, birds, insects, reptiles etc., besides being the most important habitat of the microorganisms and fungi, which do the important work of decomposing dead organic matter, thereby enriching the soil. Nearly 4 billion hectares of forests cover the earth’s surface, roughly 30% of its total land area. The forest ecosystem has two components- abiotic and biotic. Climate and soil type form a part of the non-living component and the living component includes plants, animals and other life forms. Plants include the trees, shrubs, climbers, grasses and herbs in the forest.

The Government of India has launched several schemes and programs aimed at promoting farming-based livelihood opportunities, enhancing agricultural productivity, and supporting rural development. Here are some of the key schemes and initiatives:
1. Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN)
• Objective: Direct income support to small and marginal farmers.
• Features: Provides ?6,000 annually, payable in three installments, to help farmers purchase inputs and sustain their livelihoods.
2. Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY)
• Objective: To provide risk coverage to farmers for crop loss.
• Features: Insurance for crops against natural calamities, pests, and diseases to ensure financial stability.
3. Soil Health Card Scheme
• Objective: To promote balanced use of fertilizers.
• Features: Issuance of soil health cards to farmers every 2 years, providing information on nutrient status and recommendations for fertilizers.
4. National Agricultural Market (eNAM)
• Objective: To facilitate online trading of agricultural products.
• Features: A unified platform for farmers, traders, and buyers to sell and purchase agricultural produce via online auctions.

1. Introduction

Antioxidants are defined as molecules which can be safely interact with free radicals and terminate the chain reaction before vital molecules are damaged (Nidhi and Gaurav, 2012). Naturally occurring antioxidants to replace synthetic antioxidants which are being restricted due to their carcinogenicity (Abdel Hameed, 2009). The antioxidant phytochemicals such as polyphenols, flavanoids and related compounds found in medicinal plants have received increasing attention for their potential role in prevention of human diseases (Upadhyay et al., 2010).
 
The genus Ophiorrhiza belongs to the family Rubiaceae and consists of about 150 species and distributed in tropical and subtropical Asia. Species of Ophiorrhiza are economically important and many of these species contain a high value anticancerous compound, a cytotoxic alkaloid camptothecin and other valuable alkaloids. Ophiorrhiza pectinata Arn. is a herbaceous plant and is distributed over peninsular India and Srilanka. A preliminary study conducted in O. pectinata also contains this important alkaloid (0.0040mg/g dry wt). Leaves and stem contain traces of hydrocyanic acid. The main objective of the present study is to evaluate the antioxidant and radical scavenging property of the chloroform methanol and water extract of whole plant of O. pectinata. 

Male Reproductive System

Male reproductive system (Fig. 15) consists of testes, epididymis, vas deferens and papillae.

Cocks have two ovoid creamy white testes, of which the left one is slightly larger than the right. Testes are located in the fore end of the kidneys in the abdominal cavity. Closely attached to the testes is short epididymis that continues as vas deferens which ends in the cloaca. The copulatory apparatus consists of two papillae and a rudimentary copulatory organ, the phallus which is located on the median ventral portion of one of the transverse folds of cloaca. Accessory reproductive organs like seminal vesicles, prostrate and Cowper’s glands are absent in the cocks. The phallus is small and has associated lymph glands that produce a fluid which is added to the semen.

The spermatozoa pass through the epididymis and are stored in the distal end of the vas deferens. The sperm after mating is stored in the folds in the oviduct of the hen to effect fertility up to six days. The spermatozoa of the cock have a long cylindrical head with a pointed acrosome, a short mid-piece and a long tail. Cocks produce about 0.5 -1 ml of whitish semen per ejaculate with a sperm concentration of 2- 4 billion.

CATS

Cats are classified under family Felidae. Felidae is divided into 3 sub families.

False sabes (Toothed cats)

Felids (Cats → Felinae)

Big felids (Pantherine)

Felinae

28 species, have been classified in 15 genera.

Chromosome no 2n=38.

Exterior Morphology of Cats

3.1. Approaches for Promotion Entrepreneurship Programmes in Nigeria

This book used the following typology of approaches:

1. Start: Stimulating local business start-ups that enter into new local markets, there - by avoiding the trap of yet another ‘me-too’ enterprise with low revenues. Promote business start-ups as a way of creating additional jobs and incomes, and promoting competition and structural change. However, these startups often lack innovative business ideas. Instead they enter sectors with a low entry threshold, but with high competition from other companies. Stimulating local start-ups that apply IB models could encourage players to enter new markets that are not yet saturated with competitors, while at the same time serving development goals. Possible target groups for this approach include university students, NGOs or experienced business people who create a spin-off company or leave their company to engage in a totally new business. In a country or sector where IB models are still rare, the first questions that arise are why this is the case, and whether potential markets exist for the use of IB models. Questions to ask include

Introduction

Cashew is native to South Eastern Brazil, from where it was introduced to the Malabar coast of India in the sixteenth century to cover bare hills and for soil conservation. It gained commercial importance in 1920. African countries produce large quantities of cashew nuts, but they are not processed into consumable products because of difficulties in organizing the native labour. India imports raw cashew nuts which are processed and converted into cashew kernels and cashew shell liquid and re-exported to countries like the USA, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia and Russia. The cashew kernel of India is of the highest quality in the world. India is the largest producer and exporter of cashews in the world. India stands first in area and production in the world. Indian cashew export: 63 per cent of global cashew trade. The national average is 835 kg per ha (i.e., around 5.50 kg per tree) and this is far less than the achievable level of 2000 kg per ha (i.e., around 12.50 kg per tree). Maharashtra state is having the highest productivity of about 1337 kg per ha (mainly due to adoption of drip irrigation and mulching techniques), while productivity in West Bengal has come down (1140 kg/ha), mainly because of old plantations. Due to its nutritive value and commerce, it is designated as “zero cholesterol nut or white gold”. The cashew nut is a unique combination of fat (47 %), protein (21 %), carbohydrates (22 %) and vitamins (10 %). India contributes about 65 % of the world’s exports. The USA is the largest importer of cashew kernels.

Cookware is food preparation equipment, such as cooking pots and pans, used in kitchens. There are several different types of pots and pans- nonstick, ceramic, stainless steel, cast-iron and more. If you’re only going to buy one, we suggest a heavy-duty, try-ply or multi-clad stainless steel pan. They’re expensive, but they’ll last a lifetime with proper use.

India has an opportunity to grow a variety of horticultural crops due to varied agro climatic conditions and thus, it forms a significant role in total agricultural produce. Though, horticultural crops occupy 8% of the cropped area, approximately 30% contribution in agricultural GDP. Horticultural crops play a unique role in India’s economy by improving the income of the rural people.

However, during the last decades onwards, the productivity of horticultural crops has been affected by many factors. One of the major reasons is climate change. Climate change is one of the most leading environmental problems which is facing the modern world and directly or ultimately to human action that changes the arrangement of the global atmosphere.

The earth climate has always changed in response to changes in the cryosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and other atmospheric and interacting factors. It is widely accepted that human activities are now increasingly influencing changes in the global cliamte. Emission of increasing amounts of greenhouse gases, carbon dioxide, methane, chlorofluorocarbons and nitrous oxide are responsible for generating changes to global climate. These changes are responsible for rise in sea level, rainfall sequences and movement of climatic regions due to increased temperatures.

Antibiotics have been used since their discovery to cure illness at therapeutic levels and to boost animal feed production at subtherapeutic levels by promoting animal development. Antibiotics have been regarded as necessary additives or supplements for improved growth and preservation of a healthy intestinal ecology in the production of chicken for more than 50 years (Huyghebaert et al., 2011). The Indian government outlawed the use of antibiotics in poultry feed in 2019. (Colistin, for example, is no longer allowed in poultry feed.) As a result, a lot of effort is being put into creating antibiotic substitutes. Alternatives to antibiotics should ideally possess the same advantageous qualities.

Soil-borne plant pathogens cause significant losses in the nursery plantation of agricultural, horticultural and forestry plantation stands. These pathogens can survive in the soil for many years through their resistant structures. Besides, the diseases caused by them are difficult to predict. Soil factors like soil type, texture, pH, moisture, temperature, level of organic matter and nutrient content influence the activity of soil-borne pathogens and diseases. In order to survive successfully, these pathogens compete with others for nutrition, space and other requirements. Understanding the dynamics of these pathogens and other microbial populations in the soil in relation to environmental conditions is essential for the successful management of these diseases.

Information and Communication Technologies can play a major role in bridging the agricultural developmental and regional divide in Maharashtra. Computer, internet, multimedia, CDs, TV, radio, mobile phone, WLL, satellite communication (ISRO's Agriculture Satellite), etc., can help to extend and communicate the knowledge and expertise from best experts and scholars to farmers and villagers who are in need of it. Success of ICT application depends upon its use in meeting local needs and demands of village community. ICT has been used by many to communicate knowledge and provide various services useful to the farmers. We give here briefly some initiative in using ICT for various farm and farmer related activities.

ICT Application for Agriculture development – Initiatives & Programs Virtual Academy for Semi-Arid Tropics (VASAT)

The VASAT is an initiative taken by International Crop Research Institute for Semi-Arid tropics (ICRISAT), for sharing knowledge and information in the CGIAR and NARES partners to enhance the capacity of vulnerable rural families, their MAHA-AGRINET and information intermediaries to cope with drought and desertification and practice improved agriculture and animal husbandry in the SAT of the world.

VASAT is at the initial stage of development, and has started developing content building partnership with various MAHA – AGRINET at international, national and regional / state level. It is going to use ICT in all its operations and proposes to develop hub and spokes model of Dr. Swami nation for Tamil Nadu rural areas. Its website contains an e-library, working documents, a research project database, an image library, meteorological data, IARC training material and other resources. VASAT has identified its partners at the national and international levels; and include Indian research institutions and councils, higher education institutions – both formal and open, corporate bodies, state government bodies and project groups, the Commonwealth of Learning, the International Water Management Institute, South Asia regional office and the International Livestock Research Institute in South Asia. This coalition shares information, knowledge and experiences related to climate literacy, drought preparedness, best practice in dry land agriculture and other issues through the network of the institutions. VASAT offers a compilation of training materials and is currently planning to design, develop and test ICT-based information exchange models, a learning objects repository and proposes to link rural communities and their Organizations with international and national centers of excellence and expertise to support local efforts in drought and desertification management.

A. Beejamruit
Beejamrit is an organic solution primarily used in seed treatment to promote better germination, protect against soil-borne diseases, and enhance plant growth. It is part of traditional agricultural practices in India and is commonly used in organic farming. he preparation of Beejamrit involves simple, locally available ingredients like cow dung, cow urine, lime, water, and a handful of
soil (often sourced from under a banyan tree). The process is straightforward: cow dung is soaked in water overnight, and the mixture is later combined with lime, cow urine, and soil to create the final solution. This solution is then used to coat seeds before planting, providing them with a protective layer that boosts germination and shields them from pathogens. Beejamrit is valued for its low cost and quick preparation compared to chemical treatments. It is rich in beneficial microorganisms that help improve soil health and support plant growth.
The preparation of Beejamrit, a traditional organic solution used for seed treatment, is simple and involves locally available ingredients. Here’s the  process:

State governments and public organizations in various regions implement a multitude of schemes and programs to promote farming-based livelihood opportunities. These initiatives often aim to enhance agricultural productivity, improve rural livelihoods, provide financial assistance, and support sustainable farming practices. Here are some common types of schemes and examples that can be found in different Indian states:
1. Financial Assistance Programs
• Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Scheme: Provides farmers with timely and adequate credit for agricultural activities, helping them meet their cash flow needs during the farming season.
• Interest Subsidy Schemes: Certain states offer schemes that provide interest subsidies on agricultural loans to encourage borrowing for farming activities.
2. Crop Insurance Schemes
• Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY): A central scheme adopted by many states that provides insurance coverage and financial support to farmers in the event of crop failure due to natural calamities.
3. Skill Development and Training Programs
• Integrated Skill Development Scheme (ISDS): Aimed at enhancing the skills of farmers and rural youth in various agricultural practices, including modern farming techniques, post-harvest management, and
value-added processing.