eChapters

    1.    Rice is a
        a)    Edible fruit    b)    Edible Vegetable
        c)    Edible flower    d)    All
    2.    Major components in cereal seeds are 
        a)    Endosperm    b)    Germ or embryo
        c)    a & b    d)    None
    3.    Bran is composed of 
        a)    Pericarp    b)    Testa
        c)    aleuron layer    d)    All
    4.    Oats contains ______________ percent of hull
        a)    50    b)    40
        c)    30    d)    20

    1.    Asepsis is a process of 
        a)    Removal of microorganisms    
        b)    Keeping out microorganisms
        c)    Hindering the growth & activity of microorganisms    
        d)    Killing the microorganisms
    2.    Self-decomposition of the food is prevented by
        a)    Inactivation of enzymes    b)    Delay of chemical reactions
        c)    a & b    d)    None
    3.    Commercially available fruit beverages are generally pasteurized at 
        a)    85°C for 25 to  30 min    b)    62.5°C for 25 to  30 min
        c)    71.1°C for 15 to  30 sec    d)    92.1°C for 15 to  30 min

    1.    As per FSSAI, 2011 regulations, what is the fat and SNF content in buffalo milk
        a)    5 & 9    b)    6 & 8
        c)    6 & 9    d)    None
    2.    As per FSSAI, 2011 regulations, what is the fat and SNF content in  cow milk
        a)    4 & 9    b)    4 & 8.5
        c)    6 & 9    d)    None
    3.    As per FSSAI, 2011 regulations, what is the fat and SNF content in  standardized milk
        a)    4 & 9    b)    4.5 & 8.5
        c)    6 & 9    d)    None

    1.    Fortification of common salt is done with 
        a)    Potassium iodide    b)    Potassium iodate
        c)    Both a & b    d)    None
    2.    Vinegar is a 
        a)    Class-I preservative    b)    Class-II preservative
        c)    Natural preservative    d)    a & c
    3.    As per FSSAI regulations, the permitted level of Sulphur dioxide in RTS beverages is not more than ______ ppm
        a)    100    b)    70
        c)    150    d)    80
    4.    Sodium nitrite is a
        a)    Preservative    b)    Buffering agent
        c)    Curing agent    d)    Flavour enhancer

    1.    Life blood of food companies are
        a)    Existing products    b)    New Products
        c)     New packaging material    d)     Food technologists
    2.    New Products are developed to meet
        a)    Health & Nutritional requirements
        b)    Environmental & Social requirements
        c)     Convenience & handling
        d)     All
    3.    What are the characteristics of a line extension in a variant of an established line of food products 
        a)    Little research    
        b)    Minimum manufacturing changes
        c)     No change in logistics and supply chain
        d)     All
    4.    The following one is not a characteristic of new product development through line extension
        a)    New purchasing skills
        b)    No change in logistics and supply chain
        c)     No change in storage of RM &PM
        d)     Minimum R&D

    1.    Laminar flow hood works on the principle of 
        a)    High-efficiency particulate air filter
        b)    High-energy particulate air filter
        c)     High-efficiency pressure air filter
        d)     None
    2.    Most of the organisms are killed
        a)    121°C for 5 min.    b)    15lb/in²
        c)     a & b    d)     None
    3.    Autoclaving is not recommended for
        a)    Oils    b)    Powders
        c)     Sensitive fluids    d)     All

    1.    What is the percentage of water in an adult’s body weight
        a)    50%    b)    60%
        c)    90%    d)    70%
    2.    __________ is a direct reactant in hydrolytic processes of many foods
        a)    Water    b)    Moisture content
        c)    Both a&b    d)    None
    3.    The bond angle of the isolated water molecule (vapor state) is
        a)    109°    b)    104.5°
        c)    109°28'    d)     103.6°

WHO defines Disaster as “any occurrence, that causes damage, ecological disruption, loss of human life, deterioration of health and health services, on a scale sufficient to warrant an extraordinary response from outside the affected community or area”

Nuclear Disasters

What is NUCLEAR ENERGY or NUCLEAR POWER?

It is the energy released in nuclear fission or nuclear fusion.
Motive power generated by nuclear reactor.
Where atomic energy of a substance get converted in to electrical energy.

Efforts to Mitigate Natural Disaster at National and Global Level

What is A ‘Disaster’?

It as ‘an event that has occurred unexpectedly with destructive consequences’ - (UNOCHA 2005). 
It as ‘a calamitous event resulting in loss of life, great human suffering and distress, and large scale material damage’ - (IFRC2005).
None of the international agencies take animals into account in their definitions

“It  is not uncommon for animals to exhibit behavioral changes before an impending disaster. Wild animals often vacate areas, gather in strange groupings and sometimes will even enter into human habitats they normally avoid,” animal behavior expert Diana L.Guerrero said.Three days before the earthquake, thousands of toads roamed the streets of Mianzhu, a hard-hit city where at least 2,000 people have been reported killed.

A  disaster  (from  Latin  meaning,  “bad  star’)  is  the  impact  of  a  natural  or man-made event that negatively affects life, property, livelihood or industry often  resulting  in  permanent  changes  to  human  societies,  ecosystems  and environment.  The  event  itself  is  not  a  disaster;  it  is  the  impact  that  is  a disaster. Their possibility of occurrence, time, place and severity of the strike can  be  reasonably  and  in  some  cases  accurately  predicted  by  technological and scientific advances. Hence, we can to some extent reduce the impact of damage  though  we  cannot  reduce  the  extent  of  damage  itself.  Despite  the severe impacts suffered – including trauma, starvation, dehydration, infection, disease and shock-animals are often the silent victims of disasters, and there is a real need around for the provision of effective training and management programmes to ensure that their survival and welfare are adequately accounted for. This demands the study of disaster management in methodical and orderly approach.The World Health Organization (WHO) defines a ‘disaster’ as any occurrence that  causes  damage,  destruction,  ecological  disruption,  loss  of  human  life, human suffering, deterioration of health and health services on a scale sufficient to  warrant  an  extraordinary  response  from  outside  the  affected  community or area (WHO, 1999). It is an event, concentrated in time and space, which causes social, economic, cultural and political devastation and which affects both individual people and communities (Kumar, 1998). 

Definition
Production and operations management is the process of conversion of inputs into outputs, using physical resources, so as to provide the desired utility/utilities —of form, place, possession or state or a combination thereof—to the customer while meeting the other organizational objectives of effectiveness, efficiency and adaptability. It distinguishes itself from the other functions such as personnel, marketing etc. by its primary concern for ‘conversion by using physical resources’. Figure 1.1 describes a generalized concept of production system. It takes resource inputs and processes them to produce useful outputs in the form of goods or services.

SOURCES OF LOSSES
In most of the cases of excessive fat or product loss, a combination of several factors rather than any single factor are responsible.
 
Inaccuracy in weighing: Receiving room scales should be checked regularly with a set of weights. The check should be made immediately before weighing operations begin. Improper drainage of the weighbowl will permit a carry over into the next batch dumped, resulting in incorrect weighing. Errors in weight in bulk handling methods may be caused also by improper leveling of the tank, incorrect calibration of the measuring rod, or carelessness on the part of the person taking the measurement.
 
Inaccuracy in sampling: Failure to collect representative samples may sometime cause sizeable losses. Milk should be properly agitated before taking samples. The composite sample should be preserved and refrigerated and should be protected from mould growth.

In economics and business, specifically cost accounting, the break-even-point (BEP) is the point at which cost or expenses and revenue are equal: there is no net loss or gain, and one has “broken even”. A profit or a loss has not been made, although opportunity costs have been paid, and capital has received the risk-adjusted, expected return.
For example, if a business sells less than 1000 liters of milk each day, it will make a loss, if it sells more, it will be a profit. With this information, the business managers will then need to see if they expect to be able to process and sell 1000 liters of milk per day.

Traditionally, Labour Laws have a protective function consisting of established standards both to protect workers in their workplace and to provide them a basic minimum level of living conditions. Alongwith this function, there also existed in most systems, a legal framework for the regulation of industrial relations between employers and workers. These functions had their impact on problems of development. The emphasis was more on labour legislation for its own sake, development being a separate proposition. This mutual lack of concern was perhaps due to historical factors. The most important aspect is the fact that in developed countries of the Western world, labour legislation followed the emergence of industrialization and in response to a demand for economic and social betterment of the workers, whereas in developing countries the emergence of labour laws preceded industrial growth.

Importance and Value of Human Resources

The employees are the human resources of an organization which are crucial for its functioning. The acquisition of human resources and their maintenance involves costs. Manpower costs include costs of research and designing of manpower programmes that is man-power planning, work study and designing of personnel policies etc. The costs of commissioning of man power, that is, costs of recruitment, induction, placement and training etc. The cost of maintenance of these resources is a very significant component of the total costs of an organization. Maintenance costs include wages and salaries, welfare and medical benefits, PF, gratuity and other retiring benefits etc. These costs form a substantial part of the total costs of an organization. In the last 30 years the treatment of manpower costs has been recognized as a separate division in accounting practices. The other assets like machinery, buildings etc come under depreciation. In contrast, human assets are the employees at all levels, as they grow in age and experience, add to their productivity and capacity to earn for the organization and become more valuable.

RECRUITMENT 
Recruitment is the process of identifying the prospective employees, stimulating and encouraging them to apply for a particular job or jobs in an organization. It is a positive action as it involves inviting people to apply. The purpose is to have an inventory of eligible persons from amongst whom proper selection of the most suitable person can be made.

The Process of Recruitment
Before thinking of inviting people to apply for a job one has to decide what types of persons are to be invited and what their characteristics should be. This calls for fixing the ‘job specifications’ which may also be called ‘man specifications’. Job specifications are based on job description which is dependent upon the nature and requirements of a job. 

Thus, job specification will be different for each job. The various elements of job specification are:

Training is a major manpower management function. No organization can afford not to train its employees, regardless of his previous education, training, and experience. He has to be introduced into the work environment of his new employer inducted and taught to perform his assigned tasks in a new milieu. Moreover, changing technology, increasing automation in offices and factories and in almost all institutions is bringing about redesigned or altered jobs. People are constantly being “trained” and retrained by the way their superiors and other employees associate them with work. 
Training is a part of management development and also a form of organizational development. The most effective managers are those who can best develop the human resources of an organization for the purpose of achieving organizational goals and objectives. If the employees perceive training as a means to achieve their personal goals at work, they will welcome such opportunities. Some essentials about training may be borne in mind and they are:

What is Performance Appraisal?

Performance Appraisal (PA) is the process through which an individual employee’s behaviour and accomplishments for a fixed time period are measured and evaluated. The major purpose of measuring and evaluating is to assess the worth or value of an employee. Performance appraisal is a systematic and objective way of judging the relative worth or ability of an employee in performing his task. Performance appraisal helps to identify those who are performing their assigned tasks well and those who are not and the reasons for such performance.

Whatever may be the nature and strength of resistance to the performance appraisal, management cannot relinquish this practice. Without employee appraisal, salary increases, reassignments or promotions cannot be administered rationally. Each of these areas has its specific problems and one of the solutions of modern times has been offered by an unusually promising frame work offered by Peter Drucker concept of Management by Objectives (MBO).
MBO calls on the subordinate to set his short-term performance goals in consultation with his superior. Goals explicitly state the actions which the employee will follow. Instead of being appraised in a traditional way by his superior, the subordinate appraises his own performance by evaluating it vis-à-vis the goals. Before establishing a goal, the individual studies his job, assesses his potentialities, and formulates some specific plans to reach the goal. The supervisor is not the evaluator, but directs the goal-setting process to ensure that it matches the objectives of the organization.

TRANSFER

A transfer is a change in job assignment. It may involve a promotion or demotion or no change at all in responsibility and status. It is a change in assignment in which the employee moves to another job at approximately the same level of responsibility, the same skill, the level of pay. Transfer is to be distinguished from promotion and demotion which imply an ascending or descending change respectively, in the hierarchy of positions. A transfer may be either temporary or permanent, depending upon the need, and may occur within a department, between departments and divisions, or between plants or officers within a company/organization.

Employee motivation and job enrichment are described as two management techniques used to improve human behaviour and attitude towards work, with a view to utilize available human resources more efficiently and thus make man-management more effective. Just as the employee has certain wants that the organization is expected to satisfy, the organization too expects certain types of behaviour usually termed as ‘Direction’ or ‘Motivation’. Obviously this managerial function is not so easy, as it involves many problems, and it is these problems and their possible solutions that one is concerned.
Job enrichment is also a motivational problem created by the alienation of employees from their work, or by lack of their interest in their work. Here the problem is how to make the work more interesting, purposeful and acceptable to employees so that they may perform it more enthusiastically and with a greater sense of responsibility. Like motivation this is also a problem of human behaviour and work attitude. In fact both employee motivation and job enrichment are the problems which every supervisor and manager has to face while working and making their subordinates work.

Apart from the job content and specialization, the conditions or the atmosphere in which employees work is critical to their productivity. Work environment includes the tools and equipment provided to perform the job, the atmosphere at the work place, worker motivation etc.

Tools and Equipments

The quality of tools and equipment provided to a worker has a profound effect on the worker’s contribution to his job. A poorly designed tool can cause excessive physical burden on the worker and may result in fatigue. A faulty computer monitor can cause severe eyestrain, which might affect productivity in an office environment. Hence, tools and equipment should be appropriate for the production task. The design should consider ergonomic factors like grasping pressure, size, weight, ease of use etc. when designed properly, tools enable users to work efficiently, resulting in higher productivity. The equipment installed should be able to meet the capacity requirements of the job, have safety features and be easy to use. The use of the right tools and equipment can improve productivity in an organization substantially.

There are specific hazards associated with equipment, operation or a particular section. Such possible hazards and their preventive measures are discussed below.
I. Milk Reception Dock
    1.    Where the top of a vat, into which a 40 litre can of milk is to be dumped, is higher than the milk can, two men should lift and empty the can.
    2.    Where steam jet method of can washing is used, to avoid burning, employees would be furnished with protective equipment, including rubber boots and long aprons
    3.    Cans should be stacked in areas away from frequently used passage ways
    4.    Cans should not be stacked so high that they may fall and injure someone

Since time immemorial when man used primitive tools and machines to carry his loads, to draw his water, to till his land and to fabricate his building materials, he has been faced with the prospect of maintaining these assets until such time as he considered their useful life to be ended. Maintenance is very important to extend the useful life of an asset. Maintenance is usually viewed only as a repair function. It is, however, “a combination of any actions carried out to retain an item in, or restore it to, an acceptance condition”. In fact maintenance keeps or ensures that the entire production system is kept reliable, productive and efficient. All departments of a production system may have been designed beautifully without giving due consideration to maintenance management. The end result is obvious. Organizations like the National Productivity Council and others are playing a vital role in propagating the importance of Maintenance Management of all assets of the organization. In fact, all organizations must be having some assets, and hence the need for proper maintenance and ‘physical assets management’ which is synonymous with the word ‘Tero-technology’.

Concept of Inventory

‘Inventory’ may be defined as ‘usable but idle resource’. If resource is some physical and tangible object such as materials, then it is generally termed as stock. Thus stock or inventory are synonymous terms though inventory has wider implications. Broadly speaking, the problem of inventory management is one of maintaining, for a given financial investment, an adequate supply of something to meet an expected demand pattern. This could be raw materials work in progress finished products or the spares and other indirect materials. Inventory can be one of the indicators of the management effectiveness on the materials management front. Inventory turnover ratio (annual demand/average inventory) is an index of business performance. A soundly managed organization will have higher inventory turnover ratio and vice-versa. Inventory management deals with the determination of optimal policies and procedures for procurement of commodities. Since it is quite difficult to imagine a real work situation in which the required material will be made available at the point of use instantaneously, hence maintaining, inventories becomes almost necessary. Thus inventories could be visualized as ‘necessary evil’.

A broader definition of a tool is an entity used to interface between two or more domains that facilitates more effective action of one domain upon the other. The most basic tools are simple machines. For example, a crowbar simply functions as a lever. The further out from the pivot point, the more force is transmitted along the lever. A hammer typically interfaces between the operator’s hand and the nail the operator wishes to strike.
A telephone is a communication tool that interfaces between two people engaged in conversation at one level. And between each user and the communication network at another. It is in the domain of media and communications technology that a counterintuitive aspect of our relationships with our tools first began to gain popular recognition.
Marshall McLuhan famously said “We shape our tools. And then our tools shape us.” McLuhan was referring to the fact that our social practices co-evolve with our use of new tools and the refinements we make to existing tools.

The machine parts, which have relative motion, rub against each other. The rubbing surfaces are never perfectly smooth, even when they are highly polished. If they are observed under a microscope, one sees small depressions and elevations which get interlocked when the machine parts are under pressure, and give rise to a resisting force called frictional force. Due to friction, the parts get worn out and become useless. Friction produces heat, which, in this case, represents loss of work. To reduce this wear and loss of power caused by friction, certain foreign substances are introduced between the rubbing surfaces which keep them apart. These substances are called lubricants; and lubrication is the science of reducing friction by the application of a suitable substance between the rubbing surfaces of bodies having relative motion.

Dairy industry has long dealt with issues of food pathogens and inadvertent adulteration; it is time to review the plant systems with a new perspective. Each plant has its own handling protocols, physical lay-out and employee policies. Milk and other materials entering the facilities, till the distribution of the finished product needs special attention.
 
I. INCOMING MATERIALS

In general, start by considering the milk, food ingredients, packaging, chemicals and other materials that come into plant facility and warehouses, and ensure that these product streams are secure, and that materials are stored in asecure place.

The primary objective of dairy plant hygiene is to ensure the consistent daily turn-out of safe and clean products which comply with pure-food and public health laws. A secondary and commercially important aim is to preserve the keeping quality of dairy products and so enhance consumer confidence in them. An integral part of a dairy is the quality control laboratory. Continuous testing is necessary for many purposes, including equipment hygiene. Bacteriological standards of dairy products can be maintained only if the raw product is of good bacteriological quality and is protected against contamination from the equipment with which it comes in contact during all stages of processing. 
Many factors may influence the maintenance of dairy equipment in a hygienic condition; the most important are the dairy buildings, the materials and construction of the equipment, personnel, water supply, cleaning procedures, and laboratory control. It is quite impossible to place these points in order of importance, efficient control of dairy plant hygiene being dependent on proper attention to all factors.

Food Hygiene is a scientific discipline describing handling, preparation, and storage of food in ways that prevent foodborne illness. This includes a number of routines that should be followed to avoid potentially severe health hazards. Food can transmit disease from person to person as well as serve as a growth medium for bacteria that can cause food poisoning. Since food hygiene has a direct effect on the health of individuals patronizing the catering facility, it is obligatory on the part of the management to lay down definite guidelines for maintaining hygienic conditions and ensuring their proper implementation. Cleanliness should be the basis of all food hygiene programmes and should be aimed at food protection as well as improving and maintaining the quality of food. 

The compliance with hygienic and aesthetic standards in the dairy factory is, in the final analysis, dependent on the human element. Each employee, from top management to the most junior operative, has his role in the factory sanitation programme and carelessness at any stage may cause quality deterioration of products or endanger the health of consumers. Legal action against the dairy may also result from neglect of hygiene. Personnel hygiene refers to the personal cleanliness and related habits of the workers. Milkborne infections frequently originate from food contaminated by workers through their hands, breath, hair, perspiration, pimples, infected wounds, coughs, and sneezes. Transfer of even traces of human and animal excreta by the workers is a potential source of pathogenic microorganisms. Foodborne illness is known to originate from workers who were ill and practiced unsanitary food handling methods or poor personal hygiene. Even the healthy worker, who does not exhibit the symptoms of the disease, may harbour food poisoning bacteria in the respiratory or intestinal tract. It is always desirable, as a matter of practice, to look at different parts of the human body in terms of potential sources of bacterial contamination. Provisions regarding personal hygiene of employees are contained in all legislation dealing with milk treatment.

Water Requirements

Dairy plant requires large quantities of water on a daily basis for processing and cleaning purposes. Normally the specific water consumption ranges from 1000-5000 litres per 1000 litres of milk processed. The actual requirement can vary between dairies and is a function of 
    a)    Manufacturing process or manufacturing profile.
    b)    Auxiliary processes such as steam generation, design of the refrigeration processes and extent of social services.
    c)    Multiple use/reuse.
Water is a very valuable basic natural resource  and needs careful consumption. The water supply system in a dairy plant should be designed in such a way that consumption for each manufacturing department and auxiliary processes can be determined. This makes it possible to influence water consumption directly, and major losses can be determined very rapidly.

Cleaning and sanitizing of dairy plants is essential for providing safe milk products to the consumers as well as for ensuring the good shelf life of these products. It ensures cleanliness, hygiene of the equipments and surroundings and also ensures that the products meet the safety standards. Cleaning of dairy plant consists of broadly of removing the soil from the surface of the equipment by dissolving or suspending the soil in a warm solution of suitable cleaning agents. In the dairy industry, the soil is primarily milk and milk product residues which may be more or less modified by processing treatment. 
Milk and milk product residues are complex mixtures of milk sugar, fat, proteins and mineral salts. Some of these solids are present in emulsion, some are in a colloidal state, and others are in true solution. When milk products are heated in vats or pumped through sanitary pipe lines or over coolers, the metal or glass surfaces become coated with milk remains, which, if allowed to dry, may be difficult to remove.

Milk processing plants involve processing of raw milk into products like market milk, cheese, butter, ice cream, condensed milk, dried milks and traditional dairy products. The by-products processing includes buttermilk, whey and its derivatives. Dairy effluents contain dissolved sugar, protein, fat and minerals. Spills and leaks of products or by-products, residual milk or milk products in piping and equipment before cleaning, wash solutions from equipment and floors, condensate from evaporation processes and cheese trimmings are some of the sources of dairy effluents in a dairy plant. The key parameters are the biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total suspended solids, total dissolved solids etc. Common dairy waste techniques include grease traps, oil water separators for separation of floatable solids, equalization tanks. Biological treatment consists of aerobic and anaerobic process.

Noise has become a very important “stress factor” in the environment of man especially with regard to health. However, not much attention is being paid towards its elimination or control in dairy plants. The harmful effects of noise(s) in the workplace as an occupational hazard is really a cause of great concern. Apart from reducing the work efficiency, in the long run it causes serious auditory and non-auditory effects on the worker. Thus, it becomes imperative to set legal standards in workplaces to be monitored constantly to avoid or reduce the health hazards of the workers.

Noise and Noise Pollution

Noise is often defined as “Unwanted Sound” or “Undesirable Sound”. The “Noise Pollution” has been coined to signify the vast cacophony of sounds that are being produced in the modern life, leading to health hazards.

Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials into the atmosphere that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or cause damage to the natural environment. The concern to determine the importance of the airflow as a possible source of contamination in dairy and food industry is growing, because the airborne dust particles can introduce foreign matter including microbial contaminants into the dairy products. Maintenance of air quality in a dairy factory plays an important role and is very much monitored by controlling the temperature, humidity and particle concentration. Air quality control is required for the comfort and safety of employees. To reduce the possibility of contamination in products it is necessary to impose additional controls on air quality. Airborne contamination can be controlled by air filtration.

DAIRY BUSINESS

Most ambitious young men at some time or another are likely to develop an interest in going into business for themselves. This is prompted not only by the thought that a person owning his own business is more independent but also by the hope of increasing personal income. However, when these same young men look about them and see the general existence of “big business” in practically all lines of endeavour, they often lose courage and decide to remain as workers with some company where they can enjoy a certain degree of security. 
The general condition is an important factor in determining the success of new business enterprises. Similarly, innovations like the creation of new products or the development of new methods of merchandising often gives rise to opportunities for a new business enterprise. The introduction of “Softy” ice cream and other soft-served frozen products made it possible for several hundred small businesses to get established in our country. The advent of single- service paper container was the spark that started several milk-plant operations which later grew into companies of considerable size. Ironically, the paper milk container also spelled the doom for many older independent plants that could not or did not adjust soon enough to this new way of packaging. The chocolate-coated ice-cream bar idea started a number of new enterprises which grew from small companies going to concerns of considerable size. Vending machines made it possible for many small companies to get started selling milk, ice cream, candy and lassi etc. 

The financial and commercial book keeping that is generally practiced by dairies, the main purpose of which is to ascertain the total results of the business during a given period, does not answer the question whether the costs of processing of milk products and of the various operations involved in manufacturing, are reasonable. For this purpose, dairy plants have to keep detailed records of the expenditure incurred on different components and processes, for planning of production and controlling of costs. In large multi-product dairy plants, production is generally characterized by mixed and joint production and the different operating operations are interrelated. Thus, it becomes difficult to draw a distinction and allocate and apportion the consumption of various services and utilities to arrive at the cost of different operations of various products.
The Bureau of Indian Standards has developed three different sets of records on dairy accounts which may be used to record different information for cost and quality control. These records are:

1.1    Cereals
    Wheat/Barley
    
    1. Wheat aphid, Macrosiphum miscanthi (Hemiptera; Aphididae)
    2. Armyworm, Mythimna separata (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
    3. Ghujhia weevil, Tanymecus indicus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
    4. Termites, Odontotermes obesus Ramb. (Isoptera: Termitidae)
    5. Shoot fly, Mayetiola destructor (Say) (Diptera: Cecidomyidae)
    6. Wheat Gall nematode, Anguina tritici (Tylenchida: Tylenchidae)
    7. Molya nematode, Heterodera avenae (Tylenchida: Heteroderidae)
        
    Pulses
    Chickpea
    
    1. Pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
    2. Semilooper, Autographa nigrisigna Walker (Lepidoptera; Noctuidae)
    3. Aphids, Aphis craccivora Koch (Homoptera: Aphididae)
    4. Hairy caterpillar, Amsacta moorei (Butler) (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae)
    5. Cut worm, Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
    
    Fieldpea
    
    1. Pea leaf miner, Chromatomyia horticola (Goureau) (Diptera: Agromyzidae)
    2. Pea pod borer, Etiella zinckenella Treitschke (Lepidoptera: Phycitidae)
    3. Gram pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
    4. Pea stem fly, Melanogromyza phaseoli Tryon (Diptera: Agromyzidae)
    5. Pea blue butterfly Lampides boeticus Linnaeus (Lepidoptera Lycaenidae)
    6. Pea green aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) S. lat. (Hemiptera: Aphididae)
    7. Cut worm, Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
        
    Lentil
    
    1. Lentil pod borer, Etiella zinckenella (Lepidoptera: Phycitidae)
    2. Black aphid, Aphis craccivora Koch (Homoptera: Aphididae)
    3. Cut worm,  Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
        
    Lathyrus
        
    1. Pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera
    2. Aphid, Aphis craccivora Koch (Homoptera: Aphididae)
    3. Bean bugs, Clavigralla gibbosa Spinola (Hemiptera: Coreidae)
    
    Horsegram
    
    1. Pod borer, E. zinckenella (Lepidoptera:Phycitidae)
    2. Hairy caterpillar, Amsacta sp. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
    3. Aphids, Aphis craccivora (Homoptera: Aphididae)
    4. Whitefly and Green Jassid
    5. Plume moth, Exelastis atomosa (Lepidoptera: Pterophoridae)
        
    Oilseeds
    Mustard/Toria / Gobhi Sarson
    
    1. Mustard Aphid, Lipaphis erysismi (Hemiptera : Aphididae)
    2. Mustard saw fly: Athalia lugens proxima (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae)
    3. Leaf webber: Crocidolomia binotalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
    4. Leaf miner: Chromatomyia horticola (Phytomyza atricornis)(Diptera: Agromyzidae)
    5. Cabbage head borer: Hellula undalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)
    6. Diamondback moth: Plutella xylostella (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae)
    7. Painted bug: Bargrada hilaris cruciferarum (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)
    
    Polyphagous Pests
        
    1. Rodents

2.1    Cereals
    Wheat
    
    1. Yellow rust or stripe rust
    2. Brown rust
    3. Loose smut
    4. Flag smut
    5. Karnal bunt
    6. Powdery mildew
    7. Leaf blight
        
    Barley
    
    1. Leaf stripe
    2. Covered smut
    3. Loose smut
         
    Pulses
    Chickpea
    
    1. Ascochyta blight
    2. Grey mould
    3. Dry root rot
    4. Collar rot
    5. Wilt
    
    Lentil
    
    1. Ascochyta blight
    2. Anthracnose of lentil
    3. Wilt
    4. Sclerotinia stem rot
    
    Field pea
    
    1. Powdery mildew
    2. Rust of peas
    3. Downy mildew of peas
    
    Rapeseed and Mustard
    
    1. Alternaria blight
    2. Rust or white blister
    3. Downy mildew
    4. Powdery mildew
    
    Linseed
    
    1. Rust
    2. Wilt
    3. Blight of linseed

3.1    Cereals
    List of weeds in Rabi season crops
    Management of weeds in Cereals
    
    Wheat
    
    Management of weeds in Pulses
    
    Chickpea
    Fieldpea
    Lentil
    
    Management of weeds in Oilseeds
    
    1. Rapeseed / Mustard / Toria
    2. Pictures of major weeds of Rabi season crops
    
    Non-crop lands weeds and their management
    
    1. Parthenium hysterophorus
    2. Saccharum spontaneum
    3. Lantana camara

4.1    Functions of Plant Nutrient and Deficiency Symptoms Function of Plant Nutrient
    
    1. Nitrogen
    2. Phosphorus
    3. Potassium
    4. Calcium
    5. Magnesium
    6. Sulphur
    7. Manganese
    8. Molybdenum
    9. Copper
    10. Boron
    11. Zinc
    12. Iron
    13. Chlorine
    14. Nickel
    15. Sodium
    16. Cobalt
    17. Silicon

1.1    Cereals
    Maize
    
    1. Maize stem borer, Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
    2. Asian maize borer, Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenee) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
    3. Blister beetle, Mylabris pustulata Thunberg (Coleoptera: Meloidae)
         
    Sorghum
        
    1. Sorghum midge, Contarinia sorghicola (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)
    2. Sorghum ear head bug, Calocoris angustatus (Hemiptera: Miridae)
    3. Sorghum shoot bug, Peregrinus maidis (Hemiptera: Delphacidae)
    4. Sorghum shoot fly / stem fly, Atherigona soccata (Diptera: Anthomyiidae)
    5. Maize Stem borer, Chilo partellus (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
    6. Other minor pests
    
    Ragi
    
    1. Pink borer, Sesamia inferens (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
    2. Aphids: Schizaphis graminum, Hysteroneura setariae, Rhopalosiphum maidis (Hemiptera: Aphididae)
    3. Root aphid, Tetraneura nigriabdominalis (Hemiptera: Aphididae)
    4. Other minor pests
    
    Pulses
    Black gram / green gram
    
    1.  Pod borer, Maruca testulalis (Lepidoptera: Crombidae)
    2. Hairy caterpillar, Amsacta moorei (Butler): (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae)
    3. Stem fly Ophiomyia phaseoli (Tryon) (Diptera: Agromyzidae)
    4. Whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Genn.) (Diptera: Aleyrodidae)
    5. Thrips, Caliothrips indicus (Bagn.) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)
    6. Green Jassid, Empoasca kerri (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)
    7. Bean bugs, Clavigralla gibbosa Spinola (Hemiptera: Coreidae), Dusky cotton bug, Oxycarenus laetus Kirby (Hemiptera: lygaeidae)
    8. Bean mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) (Acarina: Tarsonemidae)
    9. Cut worm, Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel), Agrotis flammatra Schiff.(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
    
    French bean (Rajmash)
    
    1. Hairy caterpillar, Amsacta moorei (Butler) (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae)
    2. Blister beetle, Mylabris pustulata (Thunberg) (Coleoptera: Meloidae)
    3. Bean fly Ophiomyia phaseoli (Tryon) (Diptera: Agromyzidae)
    4. Bean thrips, Megalurothrips distalis (Karny) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)
    5. Cut worm, Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel), Agrotis flammatra Schiff.(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
    6. Bean mite, Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) (Acarina: Tarsonemidae)
    
    Oilseeds
    Til (Sesame)
    
    1. Hairy Caterpillar, Amsacta moorei (Butler) (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae)
    2. Leaf hopper: Orosius albicinctus Distant (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)
    3. Aphids
    4. White flies, Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)
    5. Leaf webber or roller and capsule borer, Antigastra catalaunalis Duponchel (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)
    6. Gall fly: Asphondylia sesame Felt (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)
    7. Sphinx moth or Dead head moth: Acherontia styx (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae)
    
    Polyphagous Pests
    
    1. White grub Holotrichia consanguinea Blanchard (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)
    2. Rodents

2.1    Cereals
           Maize
    1. Turcicum leaf spot                
    2. Common rust
    3. Leaf spot or Leaf blight
    4. Head smut
    5. Common smut or Maize smut    
    6. Bacterial stalk rot
    7. Banded leaf and sheath blight
    8. Fusarium stalk rot of maize
    9. Downy mildew
      
    Bajra
    
    1. Green ear or downy mildew
    2. Ergot
    3. Smut
          
    Sorghum
    
    1. Anthracnose (foliar, head, root and stalk rot)
    2. Charcoal rot
          
    Pulses
           Moong/Mash
    
    1. Cercospora leaf spot
    2. Bean blight
    3. Anthracnose
    4. Web blight
    5. Powdery mildew
    6. Yellow mosaic disease
    7. Root rot
        
    Rajmash and Cluster beans
    
    1. Bean rust
    2. Bacterial wilt
    3. Common blight
    4. Halo blight
    5. Alternaria leaf spot
    6. Angular leaf spot
    7. Anthracnose
    8. Powdery mildew
    9. Rust
    10. Fusarium root rot
    11. Pythium root rot
    
    Cowpea
    
    1. Leaf spot
    2. Root rot
    3. Ascochyta blight
    4. Bacterial blight
    5. Brown rust
    6. Cercospora leaf spot
    7. Fusarium wilt
    8. Yellow mosaic virus
    
    Oilseeds
    Sesame or Til
    
    1. Phytophthora blight or stem blight
    2. Alternaria leaf spot
    3. Bacterial blight and bacterial leaf spot
    4. Phyllody
    
    Groundnut
    
    1. Collar rot
    2. Botrytis blight
    3. Charcoal rot
    4. Cylindrocladium black rot
    5. Circular leaf spot

3.1 Cereals

1.    List of weeds in kharif season crops
    
2.    Weed management techniques in cereals
    
    Maize
    Pearl millet / Sorghum
    Ragi
    
3.    Weed management techniques in Pulses
        
    Greengram / Blackgram
    Pigeonpea
    Cowpea
    Cluster bean
    Rajmash
    
4.    Weed management techniques in Oilseeds
        
    Sesame Til
    Major weeds of kharif season crops
    
5.    Non-crop lands weeds and their management
    
    1. Parthenium hysterophorus
    2. Saccharum spontaneum
    3. Lantana camara