eChapters

ABSTRACT

Plasmids are circular, double-stranded DNA molecules which replicate autonomously from the chromosome of the host organism. Plasmids are found in many bacterial species and often confer upon the host cell phenotypic characteristics such as resistance to antibiotics, resistance to heavy metals, ability to produce particular protiens, conjugative (mating) ability and ability to degrade xenobiotc compounds. One of these degradative plasmids may encode a complete catabolic pathway (such as toluene to pyruvate, formate and acetaldehyde) or partial degradative steps, such as octane to octanol. In this later case, the remainder of the pathway may be encoded by chromosomal genes, by genes of other plasmid present in the host, or by other microorganisms. Many degradative plasmids possess a broad host range, especially among the gram-negative bacterial species.

There are different mechanisms which may be involved in the evolution of aromatic pathways in general and in the process of adaptation of microorganisms to xenobiotic substrates in particular. Gene transfer, the occurrence of plasmids in bacteria in the natural environment is an important pool of genetic information residing on plasmid vehicles may flow among indigenous microorganisms. Since many examples of self-transmissible plasmids that carry genes for degradation of aromatic or other xenobiotic compounds are known, and their role in spreading these genes to other microorganisms is well characterized. Early, studies of TOL, NAH, and SAL plasmids revealed strong homologies among these plasmids in regions both inside and outside the catabolic gene clusters. Plasmids, pJP4, pAC25, and PSS50, catabolic plasmids carrying genes for chloroaromatic degradation, have strongly homologous plasmid backbone that determine replication and transfer function. Furthermore, the chlorobenzoate plasmid p51 was also shown to be homologous to pJP4 outside regions of the catabolic genes. These observations suggest that a few common self-transmissible ancestor replicons (includes origin of replication and replication gene) may have been involved in acquisition and spread of different catabolic genes. DNA

Jay et al., (1995) and Joerger et al., (2003) have written the role of bacteriocins as an alternate to antibiotics. Bacteria produce bacteriocins which are proteinaceous in nature or peptidic toxins. These inhibit the growth of similar or closely related bacterial strain(s). There are different types of bacteriocins which are classified based on the producing strain, common resistance mechanisms and mechanism of killing. Ahmad et al., (2013) have isolated antifungal compound for food preservation. Martin et al., (2018) and Batish et al., (1997) found antibacterial compounds from fungus. Mahboubi et al., (2019) studied the potential of Zataria in IBS. There are bacteriocins from gram-positive bacteria known as the colicins, the microcins and the bacteriocins from Archaea (Cascales et al., 2007). The bacteriocins from E. coli are called colicins (formerly called ‘colicines,’ meaning ‘coli killers’). These have been studied widely. Earlier called colicin V and is now known as microcin V. It is very small and is produced and secreted in a different manner than the classic colicins. Adrienne et al., (2016) have studied the colicin resistance.

Introduction

Beekeeping is a vital component of agriculture and rural development programmes in various Asian countries. The great role of beekeeping in supplying nutritional, economic and ecological safety to rural areas of Asia cannot be ignored, as it has always been associated with their cultural and natural traditions. Beekeeping is a landless activity and does not compete with any other resource-intensive elements of farming systems. Beekeeping is an additional income-generating activity at the household level.

Introduction

At a present time, Organic farming has an important priority in different areas due to worldwide in look of the growing need for pure and nutritious agriculture food and keep up the feasible and environmental pollution on long time associated with indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizer. The use of synthetic inputs in crop cultivation is necessary to meet the growing need for agriculture food in world. The natural fertilizers are made containing living or veiled cells or their strains of N2 fixation, P2 O5 solubilization bacteria. The biofertilizers are used for seed cramming, soil or vermicomposting region with the objective of rising quantity of such microbes and further those microbial processes which augment the obtainability of nutrients that can be easily digest by plants. Biofertilizers are playing higher role in increase soil productivity by f ixing atmospheric nitrogen, both, in relationship with plant roots and without it, solubilise and insoluble soil phosphorus and produces many plant growth substances in the soil.

Introduction

Biopesticides are biological substances or plant-based products that are used for decreasing the number of pests in an ecosystem. These substances, which include natural enemies, microbial products, phytochemicals, and semiochemicals, are derived from plants and animals. Biopesticides use non toxic approaches to keep pests under control. They are widely recognised as low-risk items that are secure for both humans and the environment. It makes use of natural pest such as parasitoids, predators, nematodes, and semiochemicals as well as botanicals, microbiological pathogens like fungi, bacteria, and viruses.

Bio-stimulants are increasingly used to improve crop performance while reducing dependence on intensive chemical inputs. They include amino acids, protein hydrolysates, humic substances, seaweed extracts, beneficial microorganisms and plant- or microbial-derived compounds. These substances can influence root architecture, nutrient assimilation, hormonal balance, photosynthesis, stress tolerance and disease resistance. This chapter examines the effects of different bio-stimulants on onion seed germination, vegetative growth, bulb development, yield, quality and storage life. It discusses their modes of action, application methods and integration with nutrient-management programmes. Bio-stimulants are presented as promising components of environmentally responsible and resource-efficient onion production, while areas requiring further research are identified.

Introduction

Use of FYM, crop residues, leaf fall, root deposition etc. has been part and parcel in agriculture. These material undergoes microbial decay over the time slowly and the major portion of it finds way back to the atmosphere. Not only that, residue burning traditionally provides a fast way to clear the agricultural field of residual biomass, facilitating further land preparation and planting. However, in addition to the loss of valuable biomass and nutrients, biomass burning leads to release of toxic gases including GHGs.

Abstract

Agriculture is one of the most important factors contributing to the economic growth of India. Out of the 329 million hectares of India’s geographical area, about 114 million hectares are under cultivation. There are 17 essential elements required for proper plant growth. Of the mineral elements, the primary macronutrients (nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium) are needed in the greatest quantities and are most likely to be in short supply in agricultural soils. Secondary macronutrients are needed in smaller quantities, and are typically found in sufficient quantities in agricultural soil, and therefore do not often limit crop growth. Micronutrients, or trace nutrients, are needed in very small amounts and can be toxic to plants in excess. Silicon (Si) and sodium (Na) are sometimes considered essential plant nutrients, due to their ubiquitous presence in soils.

The economy of India thrives on agriculture, the most practiced occupation in the country. Agricultural fertilizers are essential to enhance proper growth of plants and crop yield. Recently, farmers have been using chemical fertilizers for quicker and better yield. But these fertilizers endanger ecosystems, soil, plants, human and animal lives. In contrast, naturally grown biofertilizers not only give a better yield, but are also harmless to humans. This chapter aims to study the biofertilizers play a key role for enhancing economic development of sustainable agriculture (EDSA) in comparison to chemical fertilizers. Biofertilizers improve the crop yields, plant resistance, soil health, profit to farmers, and the benefit to cost ratio of biofertilizers were higher than chemical fertilizer, proved that the biofertilizers would lead to better sustainable economic development for the farmers and their country.

Introduction

Currently, one of the most serious problems facing the world is environmental degradation. Multiple technological tools are required for the detection and remediation of pollutants. Environmental pollution is steadily rising and has an adverse effect on every living organism, including humans. Microorganisms and plants have biosynthetic pathways for the accumulation or breakdown of environmental contaminants from soil and water can minimise it. Because natural microbes and plants lack genetic components, they are less able to absorb or digest contaminants, and as a result, they are currently released at high levels. Plants, animals, and/or microbes are utilised as biological indicators to detect pollution in a particular ecosystem (Zaghloul et al., 2020).

Introduction

Nature provides a wealth of genetic variation in both wild and cultivated plants. In the advanced selections conducted in developing superior crop varieties cultivated today agriculture represent only a small portion of the available gene pool. However wild species remain a reservoir of valuable genetic variation and represents a valuable source for exploitation of unexplored genetic variation for improvement of various agronomic traits. Most success has come from introgression of specific single gene controlled traits largely for disease resistance (Tomleyson, 2000 and Sergio et al., 2000). The identification of genes and co-adapted gene complexes that control complex agronomic traits such as adaptation to specific environmental stresses, crop quality, yield, plant architecture, flowering time (especially important for vegetable crops) has been less effectively addressed so far and remains a major and immediate challenge. Also, existence of low genetic diversity in breeding lines of many species used in various plant breeding programs is often resulting in development of insignificant improvement of the trait under investigation (Christopher, 2000). Understanding the spectrum, frequency and distribution of allelic variation in genes controlling such multiple genes controlled complex traits will improve our knowledge of exploitation of natural variation and promotes effective management and exploitation of functional biodiversity. In India efforts have been initiated in the exploitation, conservation of crop germplasm and technologies that are needed to fully exploit this natural diversity available in our major crop plants and their wild relatives. For example, centers that maintain diverse germplasm collections (both by ICAR and State Agricultural Universities nation wild are well established.

Role of Bioinputs explains how biological inputs contribute to soil health, plant performance, ecological interactions, and long-term agricultural sustainability. It introduces the conceptual framework and classification of bioinputs before examining their effects on soil microbial populations, enzyme activities, organic carbon, nutrient availability, soil structure, rhizosphere activity, and soil-fertility indicators. The chapter further explores plant–microbe interactions and plant–faunal relationships involving earthworms, beneficial nematodes, arthropods, microarthropods, protozoa, and the soil food web. By linking biological processes with physiological and agronomic outcomes, the chapter presents bioinputs as important components of resilient, ecologically balanced, and sustainable farming systems. across sustainable and natural farming systems.

There is a range of thermal conditions within which animals are able to maintain a relatively stable body temperature by means of behavioral and physiological means. Heat stress results from the animal?s inability to dissipate sufficient heat to maintain homeothermy. High ambient temperature, relative humidity and radiant energy compromise the ability of animals to dissipate heat. As a result, there is an increase in body temperature, which in turn initiates compensatory and adaptive mechanisms to re-establish homeothermy and homeostasis. These readjustments, generally referred to as adaptations, may be favorable or unfavorable to economic interests of humans, but are essential for survival of the animal. Thus, an increase in air temperature, such as that expected in different scenarios of climate change, would affect directly animal performance by affecting animal heat balance. Potential direct and indirect impacts of climate change on livestock production have not been thoroughly explored. Changes in crop availability and quality, which have been the primary focus of previous studies, affect animal production through changes in feed supplies. Analyses of direct impacts of climate change on livestock production are few. Changes in climate would directly lead to reductions in summer season milk production and conception rates in dairy cows. Because voluntary feed intake (VFI) is the primary factor influencing the production capacity of livestock, accurate prediction of the feed consumption of livestock under heat stress is a precursor to accurate assessment of changes in production resulting from changes to a warmer climate. Quantification of potential impacts of climate change on livestock production allows producers to gain a better understanding of the magnitude of the changes in production levels faced under climate change. Projected economic losses resulting from temperature-induced reductions in production may justify mitigation of these temperature increases through changes in management practices, such as installation of shades or sprinklers in feedlots or evaporative cooling of barns. With severe economic losses predicted in livestock as a result of climate change, it?s very essential to understand the different intricacies of climate and its impact on livestock production. This will help us to prepare ourselves better for ameliorating the adverse impact of weather parameters on animal production. This will intern prevent the severe economic losses incurred in livestock industry as a result of changing climate.

There has been increasing demand of plant based raw materials for manufacturing pharmaceuticals, flavours, fragrances, cosmetics & other related products. Among these, ginsenosides, taxol, artemisinin
etc. are some of the biomolecules used in making drugs with great demand in the market. Aromatic plants are an integral component of research and development in the pharmaceutical and aroma industry.
In India, the annual growth in this sector is around 15-20 percent. There are approximately 7500 plant species of medicinal value, including aromatic plants having significant scope for phyto-pharmaceuticals and cosmetic & perfumery industry. Because raw materials are still harvested from wild growing populations in the forests, introduction of these plants in agriculture is need of the hour for further research efforts to bring them into commercial cultivation as these plants also promise large benefits to farmers, if brought under cultivation. This can be achieved by screening germplasm from natural flora to select suitable genotypes for sustainable use in the prevalent cropping system.
Plant tissue culture technically known as micro-propagation and broadly defined as a collection of methods used to grow large number of plants in vitro (in an aseptic and closely controlled environment). This technique is effective because almost all plant cells are totipotent, meaning thereby that each cell possesses the genetic information and cellular machinery to generate an entire organism. Micro-propagation, therefore, can be used to produce large number of plants, which are genetically identical to parent plants as well as to one another (Raveen et al., 1999).

Blockchain technology has emerged as a revolutionary solution in various industries, and agriculture is no exception. By providing a secure and transparent system for recording and verifying transactions, blockchain has the potential to transform the agricultural sector. In this chapter, we will explore the role of blockchain in agriculture, its benefits, and various use cases that demonstrate its potential. Additionally, we will present key statistics and real- world examples to illustrate the impact of blockchain in agriculture.

1. Introduction

Present day botanic gardens have their origins from medicinal plant gardens established during the middle of the 16^th century meant for the cultivation of medicinal plants. Therefore, the roots of botany are traced from the medicine. The modern botanic gardens are considered as an ordered collection of plants, assembled primarily for scientific and educative purposes. They serve as the living repositories and offer excellent opportunities for ex-situ conservation, taxonomy, and studies on various other botanical aspects as mentioned below:

Since many years, there has been an extensive use of synthetic pesticides against which has caused pest resistance, resurgence, residues environmental problems and toxicity to non-target organisms. Therefore, attention is given towards the alternate methods which are ecologically, economically sustainable. Botanical pesticides that control insects by using plant oils and extracts have proven to be the most effective. As they have promising role in organic farming, they help in reduction of pest load and improve crop quality and thereby increase crop yield without disturbing the environment and helps in maintaining the balance of natural ecosystems. This book chapter, discuss about the active functional ingredients of each botanical pesticide and mode of action, its importance in organic farming, their commercial formulations, major insect pests suppressed or controlled, their challenges in usage in agriculture and horticulture and its future prospects.

1. Introduction

Synthetic pesticide use has caused pest resistance, environmental problems and toxicity to non-target organisms. It is essential to follow alternate methods because these synthetic pesticides have led to acute and chronic poisoning in farm workers, applicators, and even customers. Employing botanical pesticides, is the most effective way to replace the widespread use of synthetic pesticides, is one of the important alternative strategies. Among them, plant-based bio pesticides that control insects by using plant oils and extracts have proven to be the most effective. Botanicals being natural and non-toxic to humans, animals, and the environment, have a significant role in organic farming as they help in promoting plant growth, controlling pests and diseases, and enhancing soil health. The use of botanicals is an essential component of organic farming as it helps in maintaining the balance of natural ecosystems, improves crop quality, and increases yield without the negative impacts of synthetic chemicals. As the use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers is prohibited in organic agriculture. Organic farmers rely on natural methods to protect their crops from pests, diseases, and weeds. The beneficial insects, crop rotation, and natural remedies such as neem oil or garlic sprays are used to protect the crops. The use of natural methods to manage pests and diseases promotes biodiversity, maintains soil health, and minimizes the environmental impact of farming. Thus, plant protection is crucial in organic farming to ensure sustainable and responsible agriculture practices.

Introduction

It is carried out by 15 centres that are members of the CGIAR Consortium, in close collaboration with hundreds of partners, including national and regional research institutes, civil society organizations, academia, development organizations, and the private sector.

History

It was formed in response to the widespread concern in the mid-20th century that rapid increase in human populations would soon lead to widespread famine. The Rockefeller Foundation and the Mexican government, in 1943 laid the seeds for the Green Revolution when they established the Office of Special Studies, which led to establishment of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in 1960 and International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT) in 1963. However, these foundations alone could not fund all the agricultural research and development efforts needed to feed the world’s population. In 1969, the Pearson Commission on International Development urged the international community to undertake “intensive international effort” to support “research specializing in food supplies and tropical agriculture”. Thus, with the support of World Bank, FAO and UNDP, CGIAR was established on May 19, 1971, to coordinate international agricultural research efforts aimed at reducing poverty and achieving food security in developing countries

The most innovative member of a social system is frequently perceived as a deviant by average members and is often assigned a status of low credibility. Consequently, this individual's role in the diffusion process, particularly in persuading others to adopt an innovation, is quite limited. Other members of the system, known as opinion leaders, play a crucial role in providing information and advice about innovations to many individuals within the system.

Opinion leadership refers to the degree to which an individual can influence others' attitudes or overt behaviors informally and with relative frequency. This type of leadership is not derived from the individual's formal position or status within the system. Instead, it is earned and maintained through the individual's technical competence, social accessibility, and adherence to the system’s norms. When a social system is oriented toward change, opinion leaders tend to be more innovative. Conversely, when the system's norms resist change, the behavior of opinion leaders also reflects this resistance. By conforming to the system’s norms, opinion leaders serve as models for the innovation behavior of their followers, thus embodying and reinforcing the system's structure.

Sheep and goats in temperate regions are seasonal breeders with breeding activity mostly restricted to short day seasons of the year (Maule 1962). Endocrine mechanisms regulated by the variations of the day length stimulate reproductive activity to have maximum conceptions during the period of shorter days and correspondingly maximum births during longer day periods after a 5 months gestation (Hafez, 1987). Thus, essence of seasonal breeding is to ensure maximum births during the period congenial for survival of young ones, including availability of feeding materials and favorable climate. In tropical regions with minimum variation of day length and less distinct seasons, feed availability is not much affected by seasons in particular. Hence most species of animals maintains reproductive activity throughout the year (Devendra and Burns 1983). However there found to have influence of various locally relevant factors affecting comfort of living such as feed availability, weather and other environmental factors. Accordingly, there occur seasonal peaks and periods of restricted reproductive activity and pattern of the same can vary according to the local situations prevailing year to year (Goel and Agarwal, 1988 and Wani et al. 1980).

Introduction

Cloud computing is now evolving like never before, with all types of establishments irrespective of shapes and sizes adapting to this new technology. The experts believe that this trend will continue to grow and develop even further in the coming years. While cloud computing is undoubtedly beneficial for mid-size to large establishments, it is not without its downsides, especially for smaller establishment.