eChapters

Abstract

Over the years, India has emerged as one of the world’s biggest producers of milk, with the total milk production rising from 122 Million Metric Tons in 2010 to 171 Million Metric Tons in 2017 with dairy market in India touching a value of INR 7,916 Billion. An average livestock contributes about 12 % of farmer’s income and the same for small and marginal farmers and landless laborers’ is 36 %. While farmer’s income in agriculture is growing at 3.5 % annually, income from livestock is growing at about 14.5 %. Despite this, the majority of the dairy industry in India is still highly unorganized and dominated by small and marginal dairy farmers. Of all the major rural enterprises, dairy is an important profession of economic and social transformation to supplement the income and employment to the rural sector in general and rural women in particular. The process of dairy development would be incomplete and lop sided, unless farm women are fully involved in it. Indian dairy industry also offers good opportunities to both domestic and foreign investors for entry and expansion. Low yielding breeds, costly animal feeds, inadequate market linkage and predominance of handling dairy through indigenous technologies mar the Indian dairy industry. It is imperative to develop proper production, processing and marketing infrastructure if India has to emerge as an exporting country which is capable of meeting international quality requirements. It is anticipated that milk production in India will further grow at a CAGR of around 15% between 2018 and 2023. A comprehensive plan for producing quality and safe dairy products should be formulated with suitable legal backup. Dairy products’ consumption has been growing exponentially in the country owing to their rich nutritional qualities. Thus, it has enormous scope for women empowerment and socio-economic transformation of rural India and must rank top in our developmental agenda.

Genetic resources deal with germplasm of a given species that provides the necessary genetic variation for the improvement of that species in terms of particular products, increased efficiency and higher levels of productivity. Genetic resources are, in this sense, the building blocks, fundamental not only to a crop improvement programme, but also for the very survival of the species in time and space (Swaminathan, 1983).

As agriculture is becoming more and more intensive and location-specific, plant breeding objectives are becoming more and more complex. Besides high yield, a modern variety is often expected to combine specific duration, nutritional attributes, adaptation to varying soil and water regimes, and resistance to ever-multiplying pests and diseases—to mention only a few of the character combinations. To meet these objectives, a wide range of germplasm must exist, and the plant breeder should have an easy access to the genetic resources.

I. Decimal Multiples and Sub-Multiples

II. Description of Units

Mechanical Units

Electric and Magnetic Units

The esu and emu unit systems are cgs systems.

esu denotes “electrostatic unit”, sometimes given prefix “stat”, e.g. statcoulomb emu denotes “electromagnetic unit”, sometimes given prefix “ab”, e.g. abcoulomb Some emu units have special names:

Father of sociology: Auguste Comte

The term sociology was coined by Auguste Comte (1789-1875).

Sociology word comes from two roots i.e. Latin word ‘socius’ meaning companion Greek word ‘logos’ meaning speech or reasoning.

Sociology: Sociology is the scientific study of human social behavior and its origins, development, organizations, and institutions. It is a social science that uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social actions, social structure and functions.

Rural sociology: The study of social life of peoples lives in rural areas.

Social organization: The study of the various institutions, social groups, social stratification, social mobility, bureaucracy, ethnic groups and relations, and other similar subjects such as education, politics, religion, economy etc.

Social psychology: The study of human nature as an outcome of group life, social attitudes, collective behavior, and personality formation.

Social change: Alteration in the structure and function of society. It may be structural, functional and cultural changes and it deals with the study of such current problems in society such as juvenile delinquency, criminality, drug addiction, family conflicts, divorce, population problems etc.

Introduction Identification of animals is must as a requirement in the daily management to spot and identify a particular animal in a herd/group/flock. Objectives of Identification • Identification is done to carry out routine work efficiently. • For registration and recording of the parentage in breeding programme / birth • Identification required at time of transportation and Insurance and loan from Bank. • For individual feeding of animals. • During milking • During sale, for participation of animals in the rally, show and exhibition. • For treating the animal, heat detection etc. • It is necessary for in case of theft and loss of animal for complain and search of animal. Selection of Identification Method • Depends very much on Need and personal

Abstract

Understanding the impacts of organic or inorganic nutrient management on soil biology and biochemistry may help to develop more sustainable fertilization strategies. The results from comprehensive study made on a field experiment comparing the long-term (more than 100 years) effects of organic manures and inorganic chemical fertilizers on soil biological and biochemical properties are reviewed. The soils adopted with three nutrient managements viz., no fertilization (control), inorganic chemical fertilizers (IC) and organic amendments (OM) obtained from long-term fertilizer experiment were assessed for physical, chemical, microbiological and biochemical properties in three successive years. The response of most of the assessed soil variables to long-term organic nutrient management was significantly higher than those from inorganic fertilization and control (OM > IC = control).

INTRODUCTION

Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn (teleomorph: Thanatephorus cucumeris (Frank) Donk is cosmopolitan in soils. It is a destructive plant pathogen with an almost unlimited host range. The fungus inhabits in soils and causes damping-off of seedlings, root, crown and stem rots, and occasionally foliar blight (Baker, 1970). R. solani is an important symbiont with the saprophytic seedling stage (protocorm) of many orchids (Warcup, 1985). It aggressively colonizes organic matter and is one of the fastest growing fungi. According to available information, the isolates of R. solani possess the following-characteristics (Plate 2.1).

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)

Sugarcane is an important agro-industrial crop of tropical and subtropical region of the world. Sugar industry is next to textile industry provide employment to large number of people. It is the main crop of earning foreign exchange. It shares about 2% GDP.

Family : Gramineae (Poaceae)

Importance (Second largest agro-based industry)

• It is cash crop used for sugar, Jaggery (Gur) and Khandsari.
• Green top is used as green fodder. Dry leaves used as mulching and as a fuel.
• Bagasse (By product) is used as fuel, for the production of fibre board, paper etc. and for power generation (electricity).
• Molasses is used in distilleries for the manufacture of alcohol and is also used as an additive to feed livestock.
• Press mud is used as soil amendments, organic manure

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.), one of the most important cereal crops of India, occupies 23.3 per cent of total cropped area of the country. Rice contributes 43 per cent of total food grain production and 46 per cent of total cereal production. It continues to play a vital role in the nation’s food grain supply. It is also a staple food of nearly half of the world population. Rice is primarily a high caloric food having protein content (6-17%) with high biological value and a low amount of fat (2-2.5%). B-group vitamins content in rice grains are at par with wheat, however, calcium content in rice is generally low. It ranks third after wheat and maize in terms of worldwide production. Asia accounts for 90 and 92% of the world’s rice area and production, respectively. Thus, rice production, consumption and trade are concentrated in Asia. Among the rice growing countries in the world, India has the largest areas under rice crop and ranks second in production next to China.

Introduction

Banana plants are monocotyledonous, perennial and important crop in the tropical and sub tropical world regions. Traded plantain (Musa paradisiaca AAB) and other cooking bananas (Musa ABB) are almost entirely derived from AA-BB hybridization of M. acuminata (AA) and M. balbisiana (BB). Plantain and cooking bananas are very similar to unripe dessert bananas (M. cavendish AAA) in exterior appearance, although often larger. Main difference in the former is the starchy flesh rather than sweet and they are used unripe and require cooking. Dessert bananas are consumed usually as ripe fruits; whereas ripe and unripe plantain fruits are usually consumed boiled or fried. Large numbers of cultivars totalling about 70 are grown in different parts of the country. Some of the popular cultivars are Dwarf Cavendish, Robusta, Poovan, Nyali Poovan (Elakki Bale or Ney Poovan) Rasthali, Virupakshi, Monthan, Karpooravallli, Nendran or Rajeli. (www.pnbkrishi.com)

Commercial cultivation of Nendran has picked up rapidly in Tamil Nadu in the recent past. Nendran bunch has 5-6 hands weighing about 12-15 kg. Fruits have a distinct neck with thick green skin turning buff yellow on ripening. Fruits remain as starchy even on ripening. Keeping banana as a whole fruit for long time is not feasible due to its poor shelf life. The processed products from banana are also very limited at present and there is a good market potential for banana products such as banana figs, banana powder, banana jam, banana jelly and beverage (Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry).

Introduction
Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries Sciences University (KVAFSU),
Bidar started in the year 2005 exclusively for the development of education and learning; conduct of research and extension education and transfer of rural oriented technologies in the areas of Veterinary, Animal, Dairy and Fisheries Sciences in Karnataka. The logo of the University is inscribed with the slogan “Farmers Friendly and Rural Oriented”, which emphasizes the importance given to betterment of farming community. The mission of Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries Sciences University (KVAFSU), Bidar, is to strive hard and provide leadership in teaching, research and extension education services related to Veterinary and Animal sciences, Dairy sciences, Fisheries and other allied sciences. The University endeavor is to keep pace with new frontiers of science and contemporary developments to be socially and technically relevant. In this context, KVAFSU is strongly committed in absorbing newer paradigms and using them to develop excellent human resource, innovative technologies and their dissemination so as to serve the livestock and fishery farming community of the state and the country. Various extension educational activities are undertaken by the university at various levels, viz., Extension Education, Extension Research, Extension Work and Extension Service. Collaborative activities are being planned and implemented in association with various stakeholders like Farmers, Farmers’ organizations, Department of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Services, Karnataka Milk Federation, etc. Besides conducting routine extension activities like trainings, demonstrations, animal health camps, field trips, field tours, campaigns, livestock shows etc., KVAFSU has come out with some innovative approaches in extension education. Which are presented in this book chapter. Extension activities are undertaken mainly under two categories, i.e. university / college activities and collaborative / sponsored activities.
I. Innovative Extension Approaches Under University / College Activities Organization of Radio Series for Farming Community Radio remains an effective medium for disseminating veterinary knowledge, especially in rural areas. KVAFSU collaborates with radio stations to
• Broadcast expert talks on Veterinary and Animal Husbandry topics. More than 150 expert talks from Veterinary college Hassan, entitled as Gokulavani series, Kukkutavani series, Hainnu Honnu series I, II, II are broadcasted through AIR Hassan. Presently, Hainnu Honnu series IV is being executed with another 50 series of expert talks and skits as well.

7.1 Introduction

For maximization of yield of crops, it is essential to provide irrigation to crops. When either the natural sources like rainfall, dew, snowfall and other forms of precipitation or when the capillary rise of groundwater is not sufficient to meet the crop water demand, then there is need to supply irrigation. This irrigation water is a precious resource and need to be used cautiously. There are three important things need to be understood for optimum utilization of irrigation water with basic purpose to maximize the yield and returns. These three things are:

(i) When to irrigate?

(ii) How much to irrigate? and

(iii) How to irrigate?

In fact these three things form the core concept of irrigation scheduling.

SYNOPSIS

Flavor is the sensory impression of a food or other substance, and is determined mainly by the chemical senses of taste and smell. The flavor of the food, as such, can be altered with natural or artificial flavorings which affect these senses. Smell is the main determinant of a food item’s flavor. While the taste of food is limited to sweet, sour, bitter, salty, umami (savory), pungent or piquant, and metallic – the seven basic tastes – the smells of a food are potentially limitless.

Snack foods have become an essential part of the diet throughout the World and they are prepared from natural ingredients or components to yield products with specified functional properties. Extrusion cooking technology getting more popularity over other traditional processing technologies because extrusion shows continuous efficient cooking, mixing and forming process.

Maturity can be defined as the attainment of a particular size or stage after which ripening takes place. It is also called physiological maturity. However,horticultural maturity is defined as the stage of development, when a plant or plant part possesses the prerequisites for utilization by consumers for a particular purpose. Mango, tomato, cucumbers, lettuce, peppers, etc. are harvested at various stages depending on the objective of disposal (horticultural maturity) prior to reaching physiological maturity, or completion of growth phase.

Maturity indices are the most important for deciding the stage of harvesting and to reduce post-harvest losses. The post harvest life of fruits are mainly controlled by maturity. Maturity signs are also called maturity standards or maturity indices. Maturity signs help in judging maturity of fruits and vegetables. There are many methods to determine maturity. The most common is the size and shape of fruit, change in colour, softening of tissues (fig, sapota), ease of detachment from the stalk (sapota, annona), shriveling of fruit stalk (watermelon), drying of nearest tendril (watermelon), days from blooming to picking maturity, sound by tapping jack and watermelon, when ripe produce hollow and dull sound on tapping but produce metallic sound if unripe etc.

Phosphorus in soil present both in inorganic form and organic form. The inorganic P can be divided into different pools. The major active inorganic forms are: P bound to aluminium (Al-P), iron (Fe-P), calcium (Ca-P) and silicate minerals and relatively less active forms are occluded and reductant soluble forms of P. On the other hand the principal organic P compounds present in soil are (i) inositol phosphate, (ii) phospholipids, (iii) nucleic acid and other unidentified esters and phosphoproteins.

15.1. Determination of Available Soil P

The availability of soil P to plant varies greatly depending upon the reaction, minerological composition and amount of the soil colloid. Very little P is present in the soil solution except in recently fertilized or sodic soils. The type of phosphate ions present in the soil solution depends on the soil pH. In soils of neutral to slightly alkaline pH, HPO₄^2- ion is the dominant form. In slightly or moderately acidic soils, both H₂PO₄^- and HPO₄^2- ions prevail. At strongly acidic soil H₂PO₄^- ion tends to dominate, while above pH 9.0, the PO₄^3- ion becomes more important than H₂PO₄^-.

Milk is a product of biological origin and is a suitable vehicle to accommodate any additive without apparent changes in its look. The quality of milk and its products depends upon quality of raw milk used in their manufacture, processing and handling conditions. It is therefore, necessary to check quality of raw milk to assess its suitability for processing, through various quick tests called “Platform Tests”

Raw milk quality assessment

(A) At collection center: - Milk from various suppliers is generally collected at dairy factory or privately owned collection centers located in marked area of milk sheds. The quantum of supply may vary from 2 – 100 Liters. As each supplier has to be paid in relation to quantity and quality of his produce, it is important to draw samples and ascertain its quality by performing quick tests for the purpose of acceptance or rejection.

Sampling procedures - The sampling procedure differs according to the nature of material and the purpose for which the sample is required. The sample collected for chemical analysis should be representative of the entire batch. Thorough mixing with proper instrument is essential to ensure representative sample. Samples for chemical analysis are to be delivered the same day for testing. If un-avoided, add small amount of preservative (Formaldehyde) to prevent deterioration and bear label to the effect.

Sample from single container – The procedure involved is thorough mixing of contents. If it is small container the contents should be poured from one vessel to another with swirling. In case of can the contents should be mixed with the help of plunger which should be moved up and down and sideways for about 10-15 times. The sample is then drawn with the help of dipper from different levels and collected in clean and dry sample bottles.

India, a predominantly agrarian nation, relies heavily on agriculture for livelihoods. Over the decades, agricultural policies have focused on increasing the supply and accessibility of staple grains. This strategy has successfully reduced hunger and transformed the country’s food system (Pingali et al., 2019). At the forefront of this transformation stands Punjab that played a pivotal role in moving India from a food scarcity to self-sufficiency. Punjab’s agricultural success is globally recognized, driven by the rapid technology adoption, enabled through synergy of infrastructure, incentives and most critically, information (Singh & Kohli, 1997). Among these drivers, dissemination through agricultural extension proved instrumental in ensuring that innovations such as high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, irrigation facilities and market incentives reached farmers effectively. While various factors contributed to Punjab’s growth, but agricultural extension remains a cornerstone, translating research breakthroughs into fieldlevel impact. Punjab Agricultural University (PAU) has been a key catalyst in this journey. while serving as a premier institution in agricultural research, education, and extension. PAU’s extension system has evolved in response to shifting agricultural needs, environmental challenges, and technological advancements. Beginning in 1960s, PAU led the Green Revolution by introducing HYVs and modern agricultural inputs through a dedicated, farmer-focused extension network (Gulati et al., 2018). In its early decades, PAU’s extension services emphasized increasing productivity through mechanization and the use of fertilizers and pesticides. Initiatives such as Kisan Melas (Farmers’ Fairs) and Kisan Clubs’ facilitated knowledge transfer to rural communities, fostering large-scale adoption of new technologies. However, by the late 1980s, concerns such as soil degradation and pest resistance prompted a strategic pivot. The PAU approach shifted from purely productivity-focused methods to more sustainable and diversified practices such as Integrated Nutrient Management (INM), integrated weed management (IWM) Integrated Pest Management (IPM), water conservation, etc. Today, PAU continues to modernize its extension practices through participatory, farmer-centric approaches. The current emphasis lies in promoting innovation, entrepreneurship, adaptability and sustainability through a blend of traditional outreach and modern ICT tools. Notable innovative approaches include e-extension services via mobile apps and online portals, real-time advisory systems through SMS and digital platforms, hybrid training modules

INTRODUCTION

Throughout the history of agriculture, humans have struggled to reduce the adverse effects of plant disease on their crops. Early agriculturalists realized the benefits of cultural practices such as crop rotation and the use of organic soil amendments in promoting plant productivity. It is now well established that many of these effects are achieved by promoting the natural microbiological processes that keep plant disease in check. Cultural practices were mainstays of traditional agricultural systems and still provide the primary approaches for management of many soilborne diseases today. For example, disease suppressive soils, into which pathogen(s) can be introduced without causing the expected levels of disease severity, can result from alterations in cropping patterns or other cultural practices. Recently,

Introduction

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale) is valued as one of the most important commercial horticultural crops in India, belonging to the family Anacardiaceae and widely grown in tropical areas. The name Anacardium refers to the shape of the fruit, which looks like an inverted heart (ana means “upwards” and - cardium means “heart”). It is native to Brazil, introduced to India by Portuguese for afforestation and soil conservation and now grown widely in the traditional and non-traditional regions of our country. Cashew is well adapted to warm humid climatic conditions. It is restricted to altitudes below 700 m, where temperature does not fall below 20°C for prolonged periods.

India is the second largest producer, processor as well as consumer of cashew. Yet, nearly 50% of the requirement of cashew processing industries is met through import. As against the processing requirement of approximately 20 lakh MT per annum, the domestic production of raw cashew nut is only about 9 lakh MT per annum. Major cashew producing states in India are Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Goa, West Bengal and interior tracts of Chasttisgarh, A & N islands, Gujarat, Jharkand and North Eastern regions. Though, there is limited scope for expansion of cashew producing area there is scope to increase income through cashew based commercial enterprises.