eChapters

40.1 Introduction

India has an 8,118-kilometer-long coastline that stretches through nine Maritime States (Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Goa) and four Union Territories (Daman and Diu, Puducherry, Lakshadweep Islands, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands). The country also has a Continental Shelf of 0.53 million km2 and an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of 2.02 million km2. The EEZ’s annual potential yield is estimated to be 3.93 million tonnes of fish.

India is endowed with diverse agro- climatic conditions which facilitate to cultivate various horticultural crops all through the year in one part of the country or others, but the quality of fruits under open field conditions particularly in high value crops (vegetables & flowers) by and large fall short of domestic and international markets standards. Some time there no guarantee of consistent production of from open cultivation, as the crop is exposed to number of environmental factors that changes frequently. Hence it is imperative to increase the productivity and quality of produce to meet the demand of quality conscious consumers. A break through in production technology that integrates market driven quality parameters with the production system simultaneously ensuring a vertical growth is warranted. In this context, most important technology is the Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA) i.e. Protected Cultivated Technology (PCTs) such as greenhouse, net house, glasshouse and low tunnel. “Protected cultivation” means modification of plant environment to achieve optimum plant growth avoiding the harmful effect of climatic factors.

A project network is a graphical representation of the sequence and interdependencies of activities or tasks in a project. It is used to plan, schedule, and manage projects effectively. Here are some key concepts and techniques related to project networks:
1. Project Network Diagram
• Activity-on-Node (AON): Represents activities as nodes and arrows as dependencies. For example, a node might represent a task, and arrows show the order in which tasks must be completed.
• Activity-on-Arrow (AOA): Represents activities as arrows and nodes as events. This method is less common than AON.
2. Techniques for Project Network Analysis
• Critical Path Method (CPM): Determines the longest path through the network, which defines the shortest possible project duration. The critical path identifies tasks that cannot be delayed without affecting the project’s completion date.
• Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT): Focuses on analyzing and representing the tasks involved in completing a project. It includes probabilistic time estimates (optimistic, pessimistic, and most likely) to account for uncertainty.
• Gantt Chart: A bar chart that represents the project schedule. Each bar represents a task, and its length represents the duration. It helps visualize the start and end dates of tasks and their overlaps.
• Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM): A technique for constructing project network diagrams. It involves defining the logical sequence of activities and their dependencies.
• Resource Leveling: Adjusting the project schedule to account for resource constraints, ensuring that resources are used efficiently without overloading.

Jasmine (Jasminum spp) is one of the oldest fragrant flowers cultivated by man. They are the most common flowers in India gardens.

Importance and Uses

They are traditionally important flowers not only as fresh flowers but also as source of high grade perfume oil. Mention of jasmine is there in ancient Indian literature like Kamasutra (AD 300-400) and Mahabharatha (500 BC). The odour of jasmine flowers cannot be imitated by any known synthetic chemical or natural isolates, thus giving it a unique status in the perfume world.

The great Indian epic ‘Ramayana’ says that ‘Lord Rama’ has tried to cross over the Bay of Bengal so as to reach Sri Lanka from India from three points along the southeastern fringe of the Indian coast. Firstly, he is said to have tried to cross from Vedaranniyam which is mythologically called as ‘Kodiyakkarai’ Secondly from Manamelkudi and finally crossed over to Sri Lanka from Rameswaram Island (Fig.1), as the former two coastal locations were widely separated from Sri Lanka by Bay of Bengal and the Rameswaram Island was nearer to Sri Lanka during that period. But, the recently acquired satellite data shows the huge accretion of sediments and rapid land building activity off Vedaranniyam coast (Fig. 2 and 3). The geomorphic interpretations carried out using IRS 1A imagery and 14^C archaeological dating of such geomorphic features have shown that such ongoing sediment accretion phenomena off vedaranniyam nose might in future connect the Vedaranniyam part of Indian Peninsula with Jaffna Peninsula of Sri Lanka if the sediment accumulation continues unabated. The sediment accretion in this area, therefore, requires detailed studies particularly in the context of the coastal ecosystem (Fig. 1).

The two-way ANOVA compares the mean differences between groups that have been split on two independent variables (called factors). The primary purpose of a two-way ANOVA is to understand if there is an interaction be- tween the two independent variables on the dependent variable. For example, you could use a two-way ANOVA to understand whether there is an interac- tion between gender and educational level on test anxiety amongst university students, where gender (males/females) and education level (undergraduate/ postgraduate) are your independent variables, and test anxiety is your depen- dent variable. Alternately, you may want to determine whether there is an in- teraction between physical activity level and gender on blood cholesterol con- centration in children, where physical activity (low/moderate/high) and gender (male/female) are your independent variables, and cholesterol concentration is your dependent variable.

The interaction term in a two-way ANOVA informs you whether the effect of one of your independent variables on the dependent variable is the same for all values of your other independent variable (and vice versa). For example, is the effect of gender (male/female) on test anxiety influenced by educational level (undergraduate/postgraduate)? Additionally, if a statistically significant interaction is found, you need to determine whether there are any “simple main effects”, and if there are, what these effects are (we discuss this later in our guide).

Beside heart, ultrasound of the thorax facilitates the imaging of lungs, pleura, mediastinum, chest wall and diaphragm. Sonographic examination of the heart is discussed in chapter16. Because of nearly total reflection of sound waves at gas interfaces (Fig. 176) thoracic ultrasound has limitations. Pulmonary and mediastinal lesions located deep are difficult to image. Peripheral pulmonary lesions and pleural fluid can be visualized.

Introduction

Agriculture denotes as the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, where by farming of domesticated species creates food surpluses that enables people to survive and showing them the way of earning. Thus our country is enhancing agro-based industries. Industrial agriculture based on large scale monoculture, which is dominated by agricultural output. Hence it is the dynamically economic improvement of our country with the help of agriculture basing on modern information technology. Information technology means the latest version of information facilities like computer, mass media and Internet. Information technology (IT) or Information communication technology (ICT) is a broad subject concerned with technology and other aspects of managing and processing information.

Information technology contributes much to agriculture and rural development. It facilitates rural activities and provides more comfortable and also saves the rural life with equivalent services to those in urban areas such as provision of distance education, tele-medicine, remote public services, remote entertainment etc. IT initiates new agricultural and rural business such as e-commerce, real estate business for satellite offices, rural tourism, and virtual corporation of small-scale farms. It also supports policy-making and evaluation on optimal farm production, disaster management, agro-environmental resource management etc using tools such as geographic information systems (GIS). It also helps in improving farm management and farming technologies by efficient farm management, risk effective information or knowledge transfer etc realizing competitive and sustainable farming with safe products.

Hypothermia is a life-threatening condition that occurs when an animal’s body loses heat faster than it can produce it, causing its core temperature to drop below normal levels. Animals, like humans, rely on maintaining a stable internal temperature to function. This condition can affect pets, livestock, and wildlife, and understanding its causes, effects, and treatment is critical for their survival and well-being. In animals, body temperature varies by species. For example, the average temperature for dogs and cats ranges from 101°F to 102.5°F, while for livestock like cows, it is around 101.5°F. Hypothermia occurs when their body temperature falls below these ranges, impairing physiological processes and potentially leading to organ failure.
Stages of hypothermia
Mild hypothermia: A slight drop in body temperature, with symptoms like shivering, lethargy, and a cold nose or extremities. Moderate hypothermia: A significant temperature drop that can result in muscle stiffness, weak pulse, and slowed breathing.
Severe hypothermia: Critical condition where the animal may lose consciousness, and the heart rate and breathing slow dramatically, potentially leading to death.

Spiralling whitefly : Aleurodicus dispersus : Aleyrodidae

A. dispersus originated from the tropical countries in Central and South America. More recently, it has been reported from Asia and Africa. In India, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu faces its problem. A. dispersus is a highly polyphagous species. Its wide host range includes many vegetable, ornamental and fruit crops, as well as numerous trees and shrubs, including Capsicum, Citrus, Cocos nucifera (coconut), Euphorbia pulcherrima (poinsettia), Glycine max (soybean), Hibiscus, Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato), Mangifera indica (mango), Musa (banana), Persea americana (avocado), Prunus spp., Psidium guajava (guava)and  Solanum melongena (brinjal) etc.

In recent years application of nanotechnology in various fields including agriculture has received increased attention. Nanotechnology offers an important role in improving the existing crop management techniques especially in plant disease management by controlled and targeted release of agrochemicals to enhance their efficiency. The nano-based delivery systems are beneficial because of improvement in efficacy due to their higher surface area, higher solubility, induction of systemic activity, higher mobility and lower toxicity (Sasson et al., 2007). The pharmacokinetic parameters of nano particles may be altered according to size, shape and surface functionalization. They can also be used to alter the kinetic profiles of drug release leading to more sustained release of drug there by reducing the frequent application (Sharon et al., 2010). The successful use of metal nanoparticles in medical streams as antimicrobial agents has also led to their applications in controlling phyto pathogens (Nair et al., 2010).

Marigold is one of the easiest annual flowers to cultivate, having wide adaptability. Flowers are attractive, have good keeping quality with a wide spectrum of colour, shape and size. They produce marketable flowers in a short time and are used widely for religious and social functions as well as for garden display. 

Importance and Uses

 Marigolds are sold as loose flowers, as cut flowers and widely used for various decorations and garland making. They are also excellent landscape plants widely used for bedding purpose, in herbaceous borders and can also be grown in pots. French marigolds, being dwarf, are suitable for hanging baskets, rockeries, edging and window boxes. In fact, marigolds rank next only to jasmine in popularity in South India 

Fatty acid esters of glycerol are known as fats or lipids. A fat, in its liquid state, is called ‘oil’. Oilseed plants such as castor, groundnut, sunflower, safflower, linseed etc. contain oil as reserve food in their seeds.

It must be noted that a small quantity of free fatty acid is usually present in oils along with the triglycerides. It increases during storage. The free fatty acid content of an oil is called as ‘acid number’ or ‘acid value’. The keeping quality of oil relies upon the free fatty acid content.

During germination of oilseeds, lipases play an important role in hydrolyzing the stored oils to fatty acid and glycerol. Fatty acid is metabolized to acetyl-COA, which may take part in glyoxylate cycle forming sugars from fatty acid involving the enzymes- Isocitritase and Malate Synthetase.

In natural condition primary soil particles cohere to each other to form a cluster or an aggregate through the cementing action of various agents like organic matter, carbonates, oxides of iron and aluminium, etc. Aggregate analysis tells one about the structural status, pore geometry which in turn influences the movement of air and water in soil, amount of water stable secondary particles (aggregate) as well as the extent of finer particles aggregated to the coarser particles and the erodibility status of surface soil against wind and water.

Important insect-pests of vegetable crops

1. Aphids: (Myzus persicae)

The aphids damage the crop by sucking the cell sap from the leaves as stems. The affected leaves in severe cases curl-up and rolled. The plant may be stunted, wither and die. There are three different species of aphids. They are greenish or black in colour.

Landscaping is an art of beautifying a piece of land or a landscape with planting material, non-living material in order to create a picturesque effect or to imitate nature. Landscaping makes a place more peaceful, beautiful, appealing or pleasing, where people can rest and enjoy with their family, friends, etc.

Landscape gardening is landscaping of a garden. More or less landscape gardening and painting on a canvas or paper sheet is similar. In both cases colours are used to form a picture, only difference is that painting is non-living 2D image and garden is collection of living plants with non living things in 3D form.

When going for landscaping, one can put anything or collection of different articles of interest in a place. It requires proper planning and for planning landscape, there are principles or facts that should be followed. It is not necessary and also possible to follow all the principles at a time in a landscape plan but there are 8 basic principles one should follow during landscape planning, which are discussed below.

Aim

To measure the irrigation water flowing through a pipe by using Venturimeter

Theory

A venturimeter is a device used to measure the rate of flow of a fluid through a pipe and is often fixed permanently at different sections of the pipeline to know the discharge there. Venturimeter consists of three parts: (i) a short converging part (ii) a throat (iii) a diverging part (Fig.62.1). In the venturimeter, the fluid is accelerated through a converging cone of angle 15-20° and the pressure difference between the upstream side of the cone and the throat is measured, and provides the signal for the rate of flow. Due to the constriction there is an increase in the flow velocity and hence an increase in the kinetic energy. The fluid slows down in a cone with smaller angle (5-7°) where most of the kinetic energy is converted back to pressure energy. Because of the cone and the gradual reduction in the area there is no “vena contracta”. The flow area is at minimum at the throat.

Abdominal organs in different species of animals have distinctive features with respect to their shape, size, location and echogenicity and echo texture. This is true for dogs and cats also. Therefore, information with respect to sonographic features of dogs cannot be taken for granted for cats in totality

Protozoan parasites are Trypanosomatids of the class Kinetoplastida predominately restricted to invertebrate hosts (i.e. possess a monoxenous lifecycle). However, several genera are pathogenic to humans, animals and plants, and have an invertebrate vector that facilitates their transmission (i.e. possess a dixenous life-cycle).

1.1 Background

The aftermath of Green Revolution has contributed to both coercions and pollution, albeit, it saved human civilization from hunger, malnutrition and impoverishment. The beginning of GR era, with the prevailing objective and condition, has got less but few choices to go for intensive cultivation that invited chemical fertilizer, assured irrigation and farm mechanizations to make the 'magic gene' revolutionizing the production, productivity and livelihood security in agriculture as well.

The welcome of exotic genes into Indian agriculture has also triggered the silent oftraditional cultivars. Nevertheless, the quantum jump of an agriculture with a production of 55 million tons to 120 million tons during 70s, has contributed to make India self-reliant in food and we have been able to earn a new esteem in the global geo-political scenario by throwing away the 'begging bowl' called PL480.