eChapters

Introduction

Feeding cost and the price of poultry products have recently increased due to increasing competition between humans and animals for the same feed resources having different valuable nutrients. As you know that like other living creatures, the birds do need several nutrients in their diets to maintain optimum body growth, normal health and maximum production of edible egg and meat. Accordingly the efforts should always be made to feed poultry with a diet adequately balanced with almost all essential nutrients so that they do perform efficiently within a normal physiological form.

Abstract

Genetic resource or germplasm are considered to the be the major building block of new varieties. However, on account of excessive pressures of development, deforestation and increasing  population, the valuable resources are fast eroding and a number of type have already been lost. If this trend is not checked the losses will continue. The germplasm has a pivotal role in the development of the fruit industry, hence, it is very important to, conserve, characterize and utilize the existing genetic resources as genetic resources are the common heritage of mankind and must therefore be made available to those who need them and must be suitably conserved to fulfill today’s and tomorrow’s demand through a systematic and well defined co-operative exchange network.

Abstract

Microorganisms that harbour in the root region are the most befitting candidates for use as biocontrol agents. The rhizosphere provides the frontline defense for root against attack by pathogens. Pathogens face a complicated phenomena of antagonism from roots. They also compete with each other for site of colonization on the root surface and plant nutrients. The ideal biocontrol agent introduces and /or promotes the antagonists only, whenever required and are most effective in minimizing the wasteful application of inoculum to non-targets. Many genera belonging to bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and viruses are used as biocontrol agents to combat several important plant diseases. The present review focuses on the use of bacterial antagonists ,particularly rhizobacteria, as biocontrol agents of fungal diseases of plants , their mechanism of action, molecular and genetic basis of antagonistic property and possible genetic manipulations to bring about desirable changes. 

Abstract

Soil salinity is one of the major environmental stresses affecting crop productivity and soil health drastically, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas. Most of the vegetable crops being salt sensitive, grow poorly in saline and alkaline soils. Soil salinity affects crops mainly due to the osmotic stress and excessive accumulation of toxic ions (Na⁺, Cl^-, and SO₄ ^2-), whereas alkali soils are generally characterized by poor physical conditions due to high concentrations of bicarbonate (HCO₃ ^-) and carbonate (CO₃ ^2-) as well as high exchangeable Na⁺. Excessive concentrations of sodium chloride (NaCl) in soil or irrigation water can induce several morphological, physiological, and biochemical responses in plants leading to stunted growth and yield. This is due to osmotic (i.e., water deficit) and ionic (i.e., Na⁺ and Cl^-) effects on nutrient uptake/translocation and metabolic processes such as nitrogen assimilation, photosynthesis, and protein synthesis. Plant growth promoting microbes (PGPMs) are considered as promising tools to overcome the limitations of salinity on crop growth and productivity. Many PGPMs can enhance tolerance of crops to salt stress by increasing nutrient uptake through better solubilization of nutrients like phosphorus and zinc, and also by production of small peptides, volatiles and metabolites with hormone activities such as indole-3-acetic acid or auxin analogs in the rhizosphere. This chapter discusses the benefits of PGPMs in plant adaptations to salt stress conditions.

The classical idea of the existence of a hormone as a chemical  messenger was first reported by Darwin and Darwin (1880). However, Boysen-Jensen (1911) was first who actually demonstrated their prescence by a grafting experiment. Evidence  exist to show that early mankinds often  used these phytohormones  for rooting of cuttings, flower  induction, control of flower drop etc. The  modern age of phyto-hormones began in 1926 when  F.W.Went isolated  an active substance from oat coleoptile  tip which later on proved as IAA (Indole Acetic Acid) or auxin. A dramatic revolution in this field started after the discovery that a chemical  different in structure to IAA could exhibit auxin like activity such as rooting of cuttings (Zimmermann and Wilcoxon,1935) and by 1940,the use of synthetic auxins was well established with the progress in this field, the first generation phytohormones have been replaced with superior product and new crops are being added to take the advantages of its beneficial effects.

Introduction

Plant hormones (also known as phytohormones) are chemicals that regulate plant growth, which are termed ‘plant growth substances’. Plant hormones are signal molecules produced within the plant and occur in extremely low concentrations. Plant hormones are small, simple molecules of diverse chemical composition: indole compounds, terpenes, adenine derivatives, steroids, aliphatic hydrocarbons and derivatives of carotenoids or fatty acids. In the context of rooted habit and iterative mode of growth, plant hormones are not produced in specialized glands, but in most parts of the plants. Plant hormones are required in minicule quantities and their concentrations at sites of activity are precisely regulated. Changes in hormones concentration and tissue sensitivity mediate a whole range of development processes in plants, many of which involve interaction with environmental factors. First five hormones discovered from the plants were gibberellins, abscisic acid, cytokinins, indole-3-acetiv acid, and ethylene as well as some compound shown more recently to have a regulatory role in plant development, namely, brassinosteroids, polyamines, jasmonic acid and salicylic acid.

Introduction

Ornamental plants, prized for their aesthetic appeal and vital role in horticulture and landscaping, enhance both private and public spaces with their beauty, contributing significantly to mental well-being and environmental health. These plants, encompassing a diverse array of species and varieties are cultivated not just for their visual splendour but also for their aromatic, structural and ecological benefits. The successful cultivation and maintenance of ornamental plants however require meticulous care and expertise, especially in managing their growth and development. This is where plant growth regulators (PGRs) become indispensable tools in ornamental horticulture Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are a class of naturally occurring and synthetic compounds that play a crucial role in the regulation of plant growth and development. These substances, even when applied in minute concentrations, can have profound effects on various physiological processes within plants, including cell division, elongation, differentiation, flowering, fruiting and senescence. The primary categories of PGRs include auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins, ethylene and abscisic acid, each contributing uniquely to plant development and stress responses. Auxins, such as indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), are pivotal in cell elongation, apical dominance and root initiation, making them indispensable in rooting cuttings and maintaining plant structure. Cytokinins, including kinetin and benzyladenine, promote cell division and shoot formation, thus enhancing branching and delaying leaf senescence.

Introduction

The term plant growth regulator (PGR) generally refers to organic compounds other than nutrients that influence plant growth and development at low concentrations. According to practical definitions, plant growth regulators are either natural or synthetic compounds applied directly to plants to alter their life processes or their structure in order to improve quality, increase yields, or to facilitate harvesting. The term plant hormone, when correctly used is restricted to naturally occurring plant substances. This fall into five classes: auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, inhibitors and ethylene (gas). Plant growth regulators include synthetic and naturally occurring hormones.

Essential elements for plant growth

A large number of mineral elements are present in plants, but they do not require all these for growth. Out of the 107 elements in the periodic table, 90 elements are naturally occurring in plants and out of which only 17 elements are essential for plant growth.

Although common sense goes a long way in defining the concept of an essential element, Arnon and Stout in 1939, stated that an essential element should fulfil following criteria:

1. A deficiency in absence of the elements should make it impossible for the plant to complete its lifecycle.
2. Must not be replaceable by another element.
3. Must be directly involved in plant metabolism, that is, it must be required for a specific physiological function.

   To Arnon and Stout’s three requirements for essential elements should be added a fourth:

Abstract

Cancer is a potent disease causing nearly 6 million deaths per year worldwide. There are a number of cancers such as skin, brain, lung, breast, stomach, colon and blood cancer caused due to number of factors like unbalancing of hormones, smoking etc. Cancer could be treated by chemotherapies or through irradiation therapies.

Positivism emerged out of the modernist era, which experienced its fullest expression during the Enlightenment of the 18th century, but which had been stimulated through the earlier writings of philosophers such as August Comte, John Stuart Mill, and David Hume. Modernists believed that through the systematic application of logical mental process, ignorance and superstition could be replaced by progress, justice, and beauty. The tremendous optimism of the modernistic era was accompanied by an unrelenting faith in both the epistemology and methodology of positivism.

The foundation of positivism was grounded in a mechanistic worldview based on the assumption of predictable cause-and-effect patterns of relationships. Furthermore, positivism was grounded in the belief that there exist some laws in the natural and social worlds that are unaffected by one’s perspective and that can best be understood through reliance on objective scientific. Positivism led to positive thinking, positive attitude, and positive actions. Positive thinking leads to good mental and emotional health. So, there is a strong relationship between mental health and the role of positive thinking.

Introduction

India contributes about 5% to the world's eggs and 2.25% to chicken production (FAOSTAT, 2013). Indian Poultry Sector has been one of the fastest growing components of Indian economy with an annual compound growth rate of about 6% and 12% in egg broiler production, respectively. Poultry sector accounts for about 1% of the India's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 11.7% of the livestock GDP (National Account Statistics, 2013). With a turnover of over ?600 billion, the sector provides employment to over six million people. The annual per capita availability has increased from 7 eggs in 1961 to 58 eggs in 2012; and poultry meat from 0.16 kg to 2.21 kg during the same period. However, the present availability levels are still far below the ICMR recommendations of 180 eggs and 11 kg meat per capita per annum. Ironically, consumption of poultry products has been highly skewed in favour of urban population. In fact, only 31% of the population residing in urban areas consumes 65% eggs and 70% of poultry meat and in a typical Indian village the egg consumption is not more than 10 eggs per capita per year. Despite higher prices of poultry products in rural areas, the penetrability and reach of poultry products have remained limited in rural India owing to fragmented markets and infrastructural bottlenecks. Sekhon and Tejinder (2007) have estimated that under a moderate growth scenario of 6% per annum in the Country's GDP the demand for meat and eggs is likely to shoot up to 9.7 and 15.32 MMT by 2021 and 2030, respectively. India would be easily able to meet this demand provided, the poultry egg and meat production continue to grow at the current levels.

Laying and broiler breeding are the backbone of the poultry industry. Fertility and hatchability are the two most important reproductive traits of breeder birds that highly influence the supply of quality day-old commercial chicks and growth of poultry industry. Fertility and hatchability are parameters of economic viability (King’Ori, 2011; Malik et al., 2015) and interrelated heritable traits that vary among breeds, variety and individuals in a breed or variety. Fertility refers to the average percentage of eggs that were fertilized and hatchability refers to the proportion of chicks hatched from the total number of eggs set for incubation (hatchability on the basis of total egg set), and based on the total number of fertile eggs (hatchability on the basis of fertile eggs set) (Wolc et al., 2019).

Introduction

The livestock occupies a significant niche in the social fabric of the Indian subcontinent from the dawn of civilization. During the initial days of civilization, animals served human society in many ways. The livestock is not only producing high biological value products i.e., milk, meat but also provide manure for maintaining soil health, draught power for crop production, wool and fiber for apparel industry, low cost means of transport in rural and desert areas, companion for sports and of course a "readily disposable asset" for any kind of emergency expenditure. Hence, livestock represents one of the major driving forces for the growth of the rural economy. As a result, the livestock industry becomes one of the niche sectors of the national economy to propel faster growth along with securing the livelihood of millions of people. During the twentieth century, balanced ration was the key focal point of animal nutrition research either for enhancing the productivity or managing the livestock economy through interventions of knowledge in the areas of improvement of poor quality roughages, bypass protein, bypass fat, mineral supplements, complete feed blocks, vitamins, area specific mineral mixture, feed additives such as antibiotics, ionophores, hormones etc. However, during the beginning of the twenty first century, several issues appeared pertaining to the livestock sector such as feed quality and safety, designer animal products, healthy animal products, ecological treatment for digestive disorder, organic animal production, residues of antibiotics, hormones and heavy metals in accordance with the consumer preference and awareness. In the light of concerns on "transfer of antibiotic resistance genes from animal to human", several nations have imposed bans on application of antibiotics as feed additives. Keeping in view the above perspective, research is underway around the world to find alternatives to antibiotics to guard the gastrointestinal of animals without compromising productivity or product quality of livestock.

Introduction

Since the last century, nutritional science has made a remarkable contribution to the biological sciences through identification of diverse nutrients and their sources, functions, requirement, deficiency symptoms and their remedial measures etc. The advent of high-throughput sequencing technologies together with bioinformatic tools identified the presence of 100 trillion of microorganism belonging to all forms of life in the gastrointestinal tract. In fact, the whole gut microbial consortia are considered as a virtual organ in human and animals and is responsible for the development and functioning of series of essential physiological activities including digestion, absorption, metabolism, immunity, homeostasis, brain and gut development, resistance against disease etc. According to the modern scientific dogma, the human being is in fact a “Superorganism”, carrying consortium of numerous symbiotic Eukarya, Bacteria, Archaea and Viruses. The gut microflora has been co-evolved with human and presumed to maintain an intricate balance among different microbial communities. Upon introspection about the functionality of the gut microflora, it is amply clear that a few of these microorganisms have the ability to make healthy state; while other members are responsible for health-related problems including food poisoning, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, indigestion, inflammatory bowel disease, predisposition to colon cancer, compromising immunity, allergy etc.

Introduction

In the relentless battle against crop weeds, farmers have traditionally relied on chemical herbicides and labour-intensive mechanical methods. However, concerns about environmental impact and herbicide resistance have driven the search for more sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives. One such solution is biological control, harnessing the power of predatory insects to manage weed populations naturally. This chapter delves into the fascinating world of biological control, exploring the key concepts, benefits, and implementation strategies of using predatory insects to combat crop weeds.

Introduction

Indiscriminate use of acaricides not only causes the development of resistance in phytophagous mites but are also harmful to their natural enemies, therefore, poses a serious problem of pest resurgence. Hence, worldwide attention has been focused to utilize the natural biocontrol agents and minimize the use of chemical pesticides for the control of mite pests in agriculture with a view to develop a suitable IPM strategy. Among natural enemies of phytophagous mites, predatory mites have been found to be most effective and efficient tool in IPM programme because of the fact that many of these are not only abundantly available in nature but are also voracious feeders and have proven ability to suppress the pest mite population below economic injury level. Beside this, predatory mite can locate, run and catch hold of the pest mites even the pest mite is hiding in rolled leaves, under webs or even in the galls or erinium, etc. Some of the predatory mites require very low population of pest mites as prey, for their survival and multiplication, which is an added advantage for potential predation. Some predatory mites such as Typhlodromus pyri have good synchronization with the prey mite, Panonychus ulmi as, both hibernate and remain active in orchards.

Pankaj Kumar Singh and Chandramoni

Introduction

The term “probiotic” is derived from Greek and means pro: for and bios: life (for life) in contradiction to antibiotic which means: against life. The term probiotic was first introduced by Lilly and Stillwel (1965) to describe growth-promoting factors produced by microorganisms. Parker (1974) first specified designation “probiotic”. He defined probiotics as microorganisms or substances, which contribute to the balance of the intestinal micro flora. Crawford (1979) defined probiotics as a culture of specific living microorganisms, primarily Lactobacillus spp. that are implanted in the organism and ensure the rapid and effective establishment of a beneficial intestinal population. Fuller (1989) discussed the definition given by Parker (1974) and considered it too broad, as cultures, cells, and metabolites are also included in antibiotic preparations. He redefined “probiotic” as a live microbial feed additive, which beneficially affects the animal by improving its microbial balance. Havenaar et al. (1992) pointed out that the definition of “probiotic” made by Fuller (1989) was restricted to feed supplements, animals, and their intestinal tract. Therefore, they generalized Fuller’s definition of “probiotic” as a mono or mixed culture of living microorganisms, which beneficially affect the host by improving the properties of the indigenous micro-flora. Through 1989, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) advised manufactures to use the term: “direct-fed microbial” (DFM) instead of “probiotic” (Miles and Bootwalla, 1991). The USFDA defined DFM as a source of live naturally occurring microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and yeast. Vanbelle et al. (1990) pointed out that most researchers considered “probiotic” for selected and concentrated viable counts of lactic acid bacteria. Koh et al. (1992) pointed out that as a biological product for newly hatched chicks a bacterial culture producing acetic acid could be used. Such a culture might be supplied to the chicks either through their drinking water or by the feed. For controlling the biological balance in the chicken’s intestinal tract different probiotics may be used. The US National Food Ingredient Association presented, probiotics (direct fed microbial) as a source of live naturally occurring microorganisms and this includes bacteria, fungi and yeast (Miles and Bootwalla, 1991). According to the currently adopted definition by FAO, probiotics are: “live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit on the host” (FAO/WHO, 2001). More precisely, probiotics are live microorganisms of nonpathogenic and nontoxic in nature, which when administered through the digestive route, are favorable to the host’s health (Guillot, et al., 1998; Thomke and Elwinger, 1998,).

Abstract

Promalin treatments significantly influenced the fruit set. Maximum per cent fruit set was observed under the split application of promailn 7+7 ppm. Promalin at 10+10 and 15+15 ppm concentrations and single application of 60 ppm also increased the fruit set. Yield efficiency (g/cm²) also increased to the maximum extent by promalin 7+7 ppm treatment. The average fruit length  increased significantly in 30 and 60 ppm promalin treatments, whereas maximum fruit diameter was recorded under 15 ppm treatment. The most striking effect of promalin was in improving fruit shape measured in terms of length/ diameter ratio(L/D ratio) and calyx lobe length. The maximum increase was observed under 60 ppm treatment closely followed by 30 ppm and 15+15 ppm split application of promalin. No significant effects of promalin treatments were observed on the return bloom in the following year of application. It can be concluded from the present investigations that promalin application at 60 ppm as a single dose or 15+15 ppm as split dose is useful in improving the fruiting and production of ‘typey’ fruits of Delicious apples when applied at king bloom stage. Promalin treatment is beneficial in improving fruit quality of Delicious apples in the marginal low lying and warmer apple production areas producing flattened fruits instead of oblong conical apple fruits.

ABSTRACT

Banana is one of the most accepted and versatile fruit crops across the globe and in Kerala, it is the most important economically profitable fruit crop grown, mainly by small and marginal farmers, providing a vital source of income. However, the productivity of this crop is very much reduced due to various diseases of which rhizome rot disease is an important one. In recent years, this disease has become a serious problem to the commercial cultivation of banana in southern states of India like Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.In Kerala the disease incidence is found to be nearly 30% and it will soon become cent percent if unnoticed since the disease is more seen in banana cultivated in paddy fields, and the area under the cultivation of banana in paddy fields in Kerala is rapidly increasing. The disease is caused by a gram negative bacterium, Erwinia carotovora. Developing an integrated management package involving biocontrol methods is the only remedy for managing the disease within the financial limits of the marginal farmers. With this intension a pot culture experiment was conducted to study the inhibitory effect of different biocontrol agents and botanicals in the incidence of the disease after testing their efficacy under in vitro cond itions. The results revealed that the biocont rol agent Pseudomonas flourescens (commercial preparation @ 7g /plant) was found to effective in managing the disease. The co- efficient of infection was found to be13.9% as against the control pot where it was 56.24%. With regard to the growth parameters also, the treatment with this biocontrol agent gave superior results. Thus it was proved that Pseudomonas flourescens (commercial preparation @ 7g /plant) could be successfully utilized in the integrated disease management making it cost effective.