eChapters

Crop yields are affected by a combination of abiotic stresses, biotic stresses, and nutritional factors but abiotic stresses (drought, heat, cold or salinity) are the major factors that prevent crops from realizing their full yield potential (Edmeades, 2009). In traditional approach, breeders grow and cross varieties and then evaluate how the progenies vary in their ability to deal with stresses. The best-adapted plants are then selected for growing in fields exposed to stresses. Biotechnologists have taken advantage of recent advances in biotechnology and functional genomics to genetically engineer crops which can give better yield in adverse conditions than the unmodified ones (Manavalan et al., 2009; Umezawa et al., 2006). Drought, extreme temperatures (high or low), high salinity and cold are the major abiotic stresses that affect plant growth and result in significant yield losses. Although plants have evolved a wide spectrum of programs for adaptation to changing environment, the current understanding of the mechanisms associated with the ability of crops to maintain yield under abiotic stress are poorly understood (Witcombe et al., 2008; Munns et al., 2008; Bartels et al., 2005). New advances in ‘omic’ technologies are providing opportunities for identification of transcriptional, translational and post-translational mechanisms and signaling pathways that regulate the plant response. This chapter describers several examples of how modern crop technologies may be applied to broaden crop tolerance of various abiotic stresses and to increase total biomass.

Environmental constraints that include abiotic stress factors such as salt, drought, cold, extreme temperatures and heavy metalsalready a major limitingfactor for crop productivity and will soon become even more severe due to climate change conditions.Together, these stresses constitute the primary causes of crop losses worldwide, reducing average yields of most major crop plants by more than 50% (Boyer, 1982; Bray et al., 2000; Wang et al., 2003). Current climate change scenarios predict an increase in mean surface temperatures and drought that will drastically affect global agriculture in the near future (Le Treut et al., 2007).
 
Abiotic stresses trigger many biochemical, molecular and physiological changes and responses that influence various cellular and wholeplant processes (Wang et al., 2001, 2003). For example, drought, salinityand low temperature stress lead to reduced availability of water (alsoknown as dehydration/osmotic stress) characterized by a decreasedturgor pressure and water loss (Dhariwal et al., 1998; Boudsocq and Lauriere, 2005). Osmotic stress promotes the synthesis of the phytohormoneabscisic acid (ABA)which then triggers a major change in gene expressionand adaptive physiological responses (Seki et al., 2002; Yamaguchi and Shinozaki, 2006; Shinozaki andYamaguchi-Shinozaki, 2007).

Agricultural research has been primarily focused to assure food self-sufficiency and security, and little concern on nutritional value “nutritional security” or health promoting qualities of food being produced. Food security has three dimensions, namely: (1) endemic hunger caused by poverty-induced under-nutrition and malnutrition; (2) hidden hunger caused by the deficiency of micronutrients like iron, iodine, zinc and vitamin A in the diet; and (3) transient hunger caused by natural calamities or civilian conflicts. Micronutrient malnutrition is recognized as a massive and rapidly growing public health issue especially among poor people living on an unbalanced diet.
 
Although great progress has been made in reducing the prevalence of hunger, over 805 million people are undernourished in 2012-14, still unable to meet their daily calorie needs for living healthy lives. This number has fallen by 100 million over the last decade (Table: 1 & Table: 2; Source: FAO, 2014). Undernourishment refers to food intake that is insufficient to meet dietary energy requirements for an active and healthy life. About one in nine people go to bed daily on an empty stomach. In cases where food is available, often the quality of the food does not meet micronutrient (vitamin and mineral) needs. More than two billion people continue to suffer from nutritional deficiencies such as vitamin A, iron, zinc and iodine. Despite progress, the number is still high, and marked differences across regions persist. 

Soils are the basis of food production. Ninety five percent of our food is directly or indirectly produced on our soil. A healthy soil maintain a diverse community of organisms that helps in controlling pests (insects, weeds, and fungus) but also form beneficial symbiotic association with plant roots, recycle essential plant nutrients and improve soil structure. A healthy soil can also be a strategic ally in mitigating and adapting to climate change, as soil sequesters CO₂ and prevent to escape into the atmosphere. Beside this, it contributes to mitigate climate change by maintaining or increasing its carbon content. This can be said that the proportion of organic carbon is available more in the soil than combining both atmosphere and ground vegetation. Most of the soil organic carbon (SOC) stored in the first metre of the soil in the form of organic matter. However, organic matter degrades due to deforestation; deplete soil biodiversity, loss of nutrients as consumed by crop plants, soil compaction due to excessive use of agricultural machineries, soil erosion, water logging conditions, and urbanization, which release greenhouse gases like CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O into the atmosphere causing global warming and climate change. One third of all CO₂ emissions come from changes in land use (deforestation, shifting cultivation, and intensification of agriculture) whereas two-thirds of CH₄ and majority of N₂O emitted through agricultural practices (Kotschi and Müller-Sämann, 2004).

Pulses belongs to the family Fabaceae (earlier known as leguminosae) comprises more than 600 genera and about 18,000 species of cultivated plants. It is the second largest family after Poaceae (earlier known as Gramineae), in terms of food and vegetable protein source and of fodder. The sub-family Papilionoideae consist of 480 genera and about 12,000 species, of which only a few species are cultivated for human nutrition. Endowed with excellent food and fodder qualities, these crops also restore soil fertility by scavenging atmospheric nitrogen, adding organic matter, enhancing phosphorous availability and improving physical, chemical and biological properties of soil (Graham and Vance, 2003; Dita et al., 2006).

The word ‘pulse’ is derived from latin word ‘puls’ meaning pottage i.e. seeds used to make porridge or thick soup. Pulses or grain legumes in general are indispensible source of supplementary proteins to daily vegetarian diets (Table 1) these are regarded as “poor man’s meat”. Pulse proteins are chiefly globulins and contain low concentrations of sulphur containing amino acids such as methionine and cysteine, but higher concentration of lysine than cereals, pulses provide a perfect mix of essential amino acids with high biological value and also contain higher calcium and iron than cereals.

Stress, is usually defined as an external factor that exerts disadvantageous influence on the plant. In most cases, stress is measured in relation to plant survival, crop yield, growth (biomass accumulation), or the primary assimilation processes (CO2 and mineral uptake), which are related to overall growth. Some environmental factors (such as air temperature) can become stressful in just a few minutes; other may take days to become stressful or even months (some mineral nutrients) to become stressful. Different types of abiotic stresses that affect fruit production are; water stress, heat stress, chilling and freezing stress, salinity stress, flooding stress. Although, it is convenient to examine each of these factors separately, many are interrelated. For example, water deficit is often associated with salinity in the root zone/ or with heat stress in the leaves. Plants often display cross resistance, or resistance to one stress induced by acclimatization to another. This behaviour implies that mechanism of resistance to various stresses share many common features.

Plants encounter adverse environmental stresses during their life cycle, which have negative impacts on growth and greatly affect crop productivity. As perennial crops, fruit trees are exposed to an array of stresses for a long time once they are planted. If the trees are severely injured by environmental stresses, it would be hard for them to recuperate, leading to retarded growth and reduced fruit production. Furthermore, the negative effects of the stresses are not limited to the fruit production in the current year but can also extend to the next year(s). Therefore, it is of critical importance to develop techniques for reducing stress injury and/or improving stress tolerance in fruit trees for sustainable cropping, which can be fulfilled by the cultivation method or genetic engineering (Holmberg and Bulow, 1998). 

India is the second largest producer of vegetables after China with 14 % contribution in total World vegetable production (1160 million tonnes). After the advent of green revolution, more emphasis is laid on the quality of the agricultural product along with the quantity to meet the ever-growing food and nutritional requirements. Both these demands can be met when the environment for the plant growth is suitably controlled. Olericulture a vital component of Indian Horticulture, which includes science and management of vegetables, has made a rapid stride during the last decade, recording appreciable growth in production (162.90 million tonnes against 81.89 million tonnes in 2000-01) and productivity (17.4 t/ha against 12.2 t/ha in 2000-01), availability (210 g/capita/day against recommendations of 300 g/capita/day) and export (36,94,860 tonnes worth Rs. 14,36,487 lakhs.) during 2013-14. Vegetables play a major role in Indian agriculture by providing food, nutritional and economic security and more importantly, producing higher returns per unit area and time (Srivastava et al. 2013). In addition, vegetables have higher productivity, shorter maturity cycle, high value and provide greater income leading to improved livelihoods. The total production of vegetables during 2013-14 was 162.90 million tonnes compared to 21.19 million tonnes in 1960-61, 81.89 million tonnes in 2000-01 and 146.55 million tonnes in 2010-11. Although, olericulture has exhibited leadership role but challenges are much greater. Looking to the requirement, which is estimated to be 225 million tonnes by 2020 and 350 million tonnes by 2030, which has to be produced from declining land and water resources and in the scenario of climate change, the task to meet the needs of growing population would be difficult but not impossible (Singh et al. 2014).

Plants are exposed to a wide range of environmental stresses and have to adapt physiologically to these as the local environment changes. Unfavorable soil properties, fertility imbalances, moisture extremes, temperature extremes, chemical toxicity, physical injuries, and other problems are some of the most discussed examples of abiotic disorders that can hamper plant growth which ultimately lead to death of the plants under extreme conditions. Furthermore, many of these abiotic stresses can predispose plants to diseases caused by infectious microbes. These stresses in plants also lead to a series of physiological, biochemical and molecular changes. Impact of biotic stresses on agricultural plants such as wheat, rice, maize, groundnut and many others have been top listed area of interest for researchers but until now, ornamental plants have not been a major object of such studies even though these plants constitute a major part of horticultural production and play an important role in everyday human life.
 
Ornamental plants are an integral part of the urban public places and private gardens. However, these plants are highly sensitive to abiotic stresses, which are known as the most harmful factor concerning the growth and development of these plants. Plant stress implies some adverse effect on the physiology of a plant induced upon a sudden transition from some optimal environmental condition.

Cereal crops are interchangeably called grain crops. In many publications and correspondence, they are simply called grains or cereals. As of 2012, the top 5 cereals in the world ranked on the basis of production tonnage are rice (paddy), wheat, maize (corn), barley and sorghum. These crops are also among the top 50 agricultural commodities in the world with maize ranking second next to sugarcane. Rice (paddy) ranks third, wheat - 4th, barley - 12^th, and sorghum - 30^th. Another cereal, millet, ranks no. 42 (FAO Stat 2014, updated Aug. 18, 2014). According to Chapman and Carter (1976), “a cereal is generally defined as a grass grown for its small, edible seed.” They also explained that all cereals are angiosperms, monocots, and members of the grass family Gramineae. Similarly, Lantican (2001) defines cereal or grain crops as agronomic crops belonging to the grass family Gramineae or Poaceae which are utilized as staples; the word “cereal” is derived from the most important grain deity, the Roman Goddess Ceres. Among the food grains cereals occupies for most status in human food requirements. Cereals are grown under different agro-climatic (Upland, Low land & Rainfed) conditions and it is most important staple food of about 65% of Indian population. Cereals crop is attacked by a large number of insect pests right from initial to till the harvest of the crops. Brief descriptions of the major crops, major insect pest and appropriate control measures are given below:

India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world, accounting for 33 per cent area and 25 percent production. Pulses are mostly grown under rainfed conditions in marginal to sub-marginal lands. Once a net exporter it is presently one of the largest importer of pulses as our demand outstrips domestic production. While the traditional cropping pattern almost always included a pulse crop either as a mixed crop or in rotation, the commercialization of agriculture has encouraged the practice of sole-cropping. As a result, the annual import has increased from 0.50 million tonnes to 1.80 million tonnes during the last five years and contribution of pulses in the national food basket reduced from 17% to 7%. Pulses are generally grown on marginal and sub-marginal lands under rainfed conditions with low inputs and suffer heavily due to biotic and abiotic stresses, resulting into low productivity. Challenges for pulses in India are decline in area of pulses, low genetic yield potential, low realized yield, instability in production, climate change, biotic and abiotic stresses, poor seed replacement rate, post harvest losses, wide fluctuation in price, no regular MSP/procurement policy, poor availability of critical inputs in productivity zone and poor transfer of technology.

The oilseeds crop occupies an important position in agriculture economy in the world. Indian agriculture has made considerable progress, particularly in respect of food crops such as wheat and rice in irrigated areas; however, performance has not been so good in case of other crops particularly oilseeds, pulses, and coarse cereals. Therefore, after achieving self sufficiency in food grains the government is focusing attention on these agricultural commodities. On the oilseeds map of the world, India occupies a prominent position, both in regard to acreage and production. India is the 4th largest edible oil economy in the world and contributes about 10 percent of the world oilseeds production, 6-7% of the global production of vegetable oil, and nearly 7 percent of protein meal. This sector also has an important place in the Indian agricultural sector covering an area of about 26.5 million hectares, with total production of over 25.3 million tonnes in the triennium ending 2015-16 (GOI, 2016). This constitutes about 14.8 per cent of the gross cropped area in the country. A wide range of oilseed crops is produced in different agro-climatic regions of the country. Insects-pests are one of the limiting factors in the production of oilseed crops. Management of these pest problems by using possible control techniques could increase the quality and quantity of the products. These crops are damaged by a more number of insect pests, of which some are more serious. These pests can be effectively controlled by the integration of different techniques such as use of various safe insecticides/biopesticides, some modification in cultural practices and use of pest tolerant varieties. Integrated pest management approaches will help to increase the production and productivity of oilseed crops by reducing the pest damage without any adverse effect on the agro- system and erosion in the environment. 

Pest wise information of oilseed crop and management of major pests are described below.

Vegetable is an important constituent of Indian diet. India is the second largest producer of vegetables which contributes 16.7% to global vegetable area with a production of 156.33 million tons (15.4%) (Table 1). The level of productivity of vegetable17.4 tons/ha is quite low (Rai et al., 2014). Majority of Indians are vegetarian, with a per capita consumption 135 g per day as against the recommended 300 g per day. It is still very less than recommended diet level. In near future, there is a need of around 5-6 million tons of food to feed our 1.3 billion Indian population expected by the year 2020 (Paroda 1999). The major biotic stress in vegetable production is due to increased insect pest. In many cases, there is 100 per cent yield loss due to viral diseases vectored by insects. Vegetables are more prone to insect pests and diseases mainly due to their tenderness and softness as compared to other crops and virtual absence of resistance characters because of intensive hybrid cultivation. The insect pests inflict crop losses to the tune of 10-30 per cent in vegetable production (Table 2). To overcome these losses farmers used indiscriminate doses of toxic chemical on vegetable. It accounts for 13-14 per cent of total pesticides consumption, as against 2.6 per cent of cropped area (Sardana, 2005). For the benefit of the farmer and other, application of BIPM is must. Bio intensive pest management involves every part of management that keeps pest below economic injury level so that pest does not cause any economic loss to the farmers or growers.

Vegetables constitute a substantial part of human diet supplying vitamins and minerals, in which other food materials are deficient. India has emerged out as the second largest producer of vegetables in the world. More than 25% of fruits and vegetables are damaged by the attack of insect-pests (Pradhan, 1964).Vegetable crop is damaged by both sucking as well as chewing insect-pests. Sucking pests are aphids, whitefly, jassids and bugs attacking in initial stage whereas chewing pests like borers, infesting in flowering and fruiting stage. Sucking pests may transmit the viral diseases which cause severe loss in yield in tomato and okra crops. About 13-14 % of total pesticides used in the country are applied on vegetables. Average pesticide consumption in vegetables in India around 0.678 a.i. kg/ha. Maximum pesticide usage in chilli followed by brinjal, cole crops and okra. Global agro-chemical consumption dominated by fruits and vegetables, accounting 25 % of total pesticide market. Major insect-pests of different vegetable crops and their management are as follows:
 
Cole crops

Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var capitata) and Cauliflower (Brassica olercea var botrytis L) are grown in cold and moist climate. It is rich in minerals namely iron, magnesium, phosphorous and sodium. Cole crops were attacked by number of insect pests and cause heavy economic loss. The major insect pests are described below along with their management:

Okra Abelmoschus esculentus L.

Cotton Jassid Amrasca biguttula Ishida (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)

Economic importance: Sucking pest cause damage during May to September. Adults are also found on plants such as potato, brinjal, tomato, etc.

Mark of identification and life cycle: Adults are about 3 mm long and greenish yellow during the summer, acquiring a reddish tinge in the winter. The winged adults jump or fly away at the slightest disturbance and are also attracted to light at night. Females lay about 15-38 yellowish eggs on the underside of the leaves, embedding them into the leaf veins. The eggs hatch in 4-5 days. Nymphs are wedge-shaped and are very active and complete five instars with 3-5 days in each instars. Adult live for 11days.

Nature of damage: Damage to the crop is caused by the adults as well as by the nymphs, both of which are very agile and move briskly, forward and sideways. They suck cell-sap from the underside of the leaves and pass through six stages of growth in 7-21 days. They feed constantly on the plant juice. The pest completes seven generations in a year. Damage symptoms: Injury to plants is due to the loss of sap and probably also due to the injection of toxins. The attacked leaves turn pale and then rust-red. With change in appearance, the leaves also turn downwards, dry up and fall to the ground.

Solanaceous Vegetables

Solanaceous vegetables are also infested heavily by several major insect pests.

Brinjal Solanum melongena L.
 
Fruit and shoot borer Leucinodes orbonalis Gunnee (Lepidoptera: Pyraustidae)

Economic importance: Most destructive pest of brinjal, found throughout the country. Besides brinjal, the pest is also known to infest potato, bitter gourd, pea pods, cucurbits and other solanaceous etc. The infestation on brinjal can be as high as 70 per cent. The pest is active throughout the year, except in severe cold weather in North India.
 
Mark of identification and life cycle: Moths wings are white with pinkish or black tings and are ringed with small hair along the apical and anal margins. The fore wings are ornamented with a number of black, pale and light brown spots. Female lays 80-120 creamy white eggs, singly or in batches of 2-4 on the underside of leaves, on green stems, flower buds or the calyces of fruits. Caterpillars are creamy when young, but light pink when full-grown in 9-28 days. Pupate in tough silken cocoons among the fallen leaves with period of 6-17days and adult survive for 2-5days of its life cycle. A single life-cycle takes 22 - 25 days extending up to 74 days during winter and there may be 8 - 12 generations in a year.

A systems approach to pest management based on an understanding of pest ecology is referred to as Biointensive Integrated Pest Management (BIPM). It is more dynamic and ecologically informed as compared to IPM that considers the farm as part of an agro ecosystem. Accurate diagnosis of the pest problem is the first step, which then relies on a range of preventive tactics and biological controls to keep pest populations within acceptable limits. It also considers ecological and economic factors into agricultural system design and decision - making and addresses public concern about environmental quality and food safety. As a last resort, the reduced – risk pesticides are used if other tactics have not been adequately effective.

The earlier concept of IPM has failed because of ease of applicability to easy availability of chemical pesticides. Hence, the present concept of BIPM, with more intensive use of biological and other biorational means has emerged. The flexibility and environmental compatibility of BIPM strategies make it useful in all types of cropping system. BIPM would likely decrease chemical use and costs entailing them. BIPM ultimately provides resistance / immunity to the entire system so that no foreign elements (insect pests or disease causing organisms) survive or gain upper hand. BIPM if followed for years shall enhance the natural control system, thus suppressing pest populations below those causing economic injury.

Fruit Flies and Economic Importance

Fruit flies belong to order Diptera (true flies) with one of the largest, most diversified and fascinating acalypterate family Tephritidae. These are commonly called as fruit flies due to their close association with fruits and vegetables and are also known as peacock flies because of their habit of strutting about and vibrating spotted and striped wings. Of the 4500 known species of fruit flies worldwide, nearly 200 are considered as pests but 70 species are regarded as agriculturally important throughout the world (Clarke et al., 2005, Schutz et al., 2012). David and Ramani (2011) reported 325 species in the Indian subcontinent of which 243 in 79 genera are from India alone. Important fruits flies damaging fruit crops in India include Oriental fruit fly or mango fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel); peach fruit fly, B. zonata (Saunders); guava fruit fly, 
B. correcta (Bezzi); melon fly, B. cucurbitae (Coquillett) and ber fruit fly, Carpomyia vesuviana Costa, whereas important fruit flies in Punjab include B. dorsalis and B. zonata. Important host plants of B. dorsalis are mango, guava, peach, citrus, pear, ber and loquat but most preferred host of B. dorsalis is guava while that of B. zonata are guava, peach, mango, pear, ber, citrus and loquat but C. vesuviana infests only ber (Mann 1990, Sharma et al., 2005, Singh 2008b, Singh 2012, Singh et al., 2014a,b and Singh et al., 2015). Bactrocera dorsalis is considered to be the most damaging and aggressive fruit flies in the world (Leblance and Putao 2000). They are strong fliers and can fly upto two kilometers in search of food (Butani 1979).

Inorganic pest management systems using external inputs such as chemical fertilizers, pesticides, high yielding varieties have resulted in increased yields in certain areas, but resulted in ecological degradation hence a decrease in productivity. Under organic farming systems, the fundamental components and natural processes of ecosystems, such as soil organism activities, nutrient cycling, and species distribution and competition are used to work directly and indirectly as farm management tools. For example, crops are rotated, planting and harvesting dates are carefully planned, and habitat that supplies resources for beneficial organisms are provided. Soil fertility and crop nutrients are managed through tillage and cultivation practices, crop rotations, cover crops, and supplemented with manure, composts, crop waste material and allowed substances.
 
Bio intensive IPM incorporates ecological and economic factors into agricultural system design and decision making and addresses public concerns about environmental quality and food safety. The benefits of implementing bio intensive IPM can include reduced chemical input costs, reduced on-farm and off-farm environmental impacts, and more effective and sustainable pest management. An ecology-based IPM has the potential of decreasing inputs of fuel, machinery, and synthetic chemicals—all of which are energy intensive and increasingly costly in terms of financial and environmental impact. Such reductions will benefit the grower and society.

Nematodes are the most numerous metazoa on earth. They are either free living or parasites of plants and animals. Although currently only about 4100 species of plant parasitic nematodes have been described (i.e. 15 % of the total number of nematode species known), their impact on humans by inflicting heavy losses in agriculture is substantial. Most of the developing countries including India lie in tropical or sub tropical regions where climate is suitable for activity and multiplication of nematodes almost throughout the year. Sandy and warm soils such as found in India other developing countries in the arid zone are very favorable for nematode infection, especially in irrigated areas which are used for crop production continuously. The percentage of crop losses caused by plant pathogens, insect pests and weeds world wide has been estimated to 42% according for $500 billion worth of damage. The estimated overall annual yield loss of world’s major crops due to damage by plant parasitic nematodes has been reported to the extent of 12.3% (Sasser & Freckman, 1987). Estimated losses due to nematodes attack on different cultivated crops all over the world by FAO are around 400 million dollars. Annual crop losses in India is Rs. 242.1 billion. A large number of plant parasitic nematodes have been found associated with pulse crops in allover India but pathogenicity has not been proved for all. Plant parasitic nematodes are one of the most unwanted organisms in agricultural soils. They parasitize the roots of our carefully nurtured crops, reduce their ability to produce yields, make them weak and perhaps vulnerable to many pests and diseases. They reduce the crop yields that may equal those associated with more severe and easily identifiable plant diseases and we do not even realize their presence. Damage to crops by nematodes often goes unnoticed or attributed to other causes such as lack of fertility, deficient soil moisture. Sandy and warm soils such as found in India other developing countries in the arid zone are very favourable for nematode infection, especially in irrigated areas which are used for crop production continuously (Taylor, 1967).

A large number of insect pests are associated with stored grains which are directly related to geographical and climatic conditions. There are different estimates on post harvest losses in food. During storage both quantitative and qualitative losses occur due to insects, rodents, and microorganisms. Almost all the insect species may destroy 10.0 - 15.0 % of grain and contaminate with undesirable odour. These pests also helps in transportation of fungi. Some insect pests initiate damage at the ripening stage of crops and continue during storage. Major sources of infestations are old gunny bags, storage structure and old containers (Pruthi and Singh, 1950). The spread and distribution of stored product pests are facilitated by movement of grains from one area to another and by flight of insect pests as some of the adult insects are strong fliers. The cracks and crevices are probable sites for cross infestation. Nearly one thousand species of insects have been associated with stored products in different part of the world. Majority of insect pests belong to the orders Coleoptera and Lepidoptera (Khare, 1994).

A. Bhattacharya
1.1.    Specific and Unspecific Reactions to Stress

A. Bhattacharya

2.1.    Seed Germination
    
    2.1.1.        Drought Tolerance in Plants
    2.1.2.        Osmotic Adjustment
    2.1.3.        Cell membrane Stability
    2.1.4.        Epicuticular Wax
    2.1.5.        Partitioning and Stem Reserve Mobilization
    2.1.6.        Salt Stress and Seed Germination
    
2.2.    Seedling Drought Traits
    
2.3.    Seed Germination Under Abiotic Stress

2.4.    Salt Stress and Seed Germination

2.5.    Seedling Growth

2.6.    Stress Effects on Seedling Growth
    
    2.6.1.        Temperature
    2.6.2.        Nutrition, Salinity, and pH
    2.6.3.        Water
    2.6.4.        Under Flooding Condition
    
2.7.    Drought Stress and Abscisic acid (ABA)
    
2.8.    Salt Stress on Seedling Length
    
    2.8.1.        Salt Stress on Seedling Dry Weight
    2.8.2.        Mechanism of Salt Stress on Germination
    2.8.3.        Root Establishment Methods
    
2.9.    Root Development
    
    2.9.1.        Root System Development and Abiotic Stress
    
2.10.    Root Development Under Abiotic Stress
    
    2.10.1.        Drought Stress
    2.10.2.        Regulation of Root System Architecture by Water Availability and Salinity Stress
    2.10.3.        Regulation of Root System Architecture by Nutrients
    2.10.4.        Phosphate Starvation
    2.10.5.        Nitrogen
    2.10.6.        Potasium and Iron
    2.10.7.        Meristematic Activity Regulation by Abiotic Stress
    2.10.8.        Waterlogging Stress
    2.10.9.        Salt Stress
    2.10.10.    Temperature Stress
    2.10.11.    Illumination Stress
    2.10.12.    Nutrient Deficiency or Excess
    2.10.13.    Heavy Metal Stress
    2.10.14.    Elevated Atmospheric Levels of CO2
    2.10.15.    Mechanical Stress
    
2.11.    Biochemical Regulation of Root
        
References

Raj Bahadur
    
3.1.    Nitrogen Fixation in Saline Soil
    
3.2.    Legumes and Nitrogen Fixation
    
    3.2.1.    Legumes in Saline Agriculture; Nitrogen Fixation Capabilities
    3.2.2.    Legumes in Saline Agriculture; Salinity Tolerance of Legumes
    3.2.3.    Improvement of Salinity Tolerance of Legumes
    3.2.4.    Legumes of the HALOPH Database
    
3.3.    Perspective for Saline Agriculture
    
3.4.    Impacts of Agriculture and Global Climate Change Terrestrial Biogeochemical Cycle of Nitrogen
    
    3.4.1.    Nitrogen Chemistry and Terrestrial Life
    
3.5.    Nitrogen Fixation
    
    3.5.1.    Decomposition
    3.5.2.    Nitrification
    3.5.3.    Denitrification
    3.5.4.    Bio-geochemical Linkage of Nitrogen and Carbon
    3.5.5.    Soil Organic Matter
    3.5.6.    Perturbations and N and C Biogeochemistry
    3.5.7.    Organic Nitrogen
    3.5.8.    Mineralization
    
3.6.    Factors Influencing Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Legumes
    
    3.6.1.    Temperature
    3.6.2.    Soil Water Status
    3.6.3.    Nitrogen Concentration in the Root Zone
    3.6.4.    Carbon Demand for Fixation
    3.6.5.    Seasonal Regulation of Legume Biological Nitrogen Fixation
    
3.7.    Quantification of Biological Nitrogen Fixation
    
    3.7.1.    Estimation with Empirical Models
    3.7.2.    Potential N Fixation Rate
    3.7.3.    Impact of Soil Temperature
    3.7.4.    Impact of Soil Water Status
    3.7.5.    Effect of Soil Mineral N or Internal Substrate N
    3.7.6.    Influence of Plant Substrate C or C supply
    3.7.7.    Changes in N Fixation with Plant Growth Stage
        
    References

A. Bhattacharya    
    
4.1.    Factors of Abiotic Stress
    
4.2.    Light
    
4.3.    Temperature
    
    4.3.1.    Heat-stress Threshold
    4.3.2.    Low Temperature Stress
    4.3.3.    Plant Responses to Heat Stress
    
4.4.    Water
    
    4.4.1.    Drought
    4.4.2.    Flooding
    
4.5.    Soil
    
    4.5.1.    Soil Type
    4.5.2.    Soil pH
    4.5.3.    Soil Fertility
    4.5.4.    Soil Salinity
    
4.6.    Growth and Development
    
    4.6.1.    Phases of Development Sensitive to Temperature or Photoperiod
    
4.7.    Phenology
    
    4.7.1.    Changes in Phenology of Cropping Systems
    4.7.2.    Effect of CO2 on Flowering
    4.7.3.    Temperature and Effects on Phenology
    4.7.4.    Effect of Salinity
    
4.8.    Molecular/Genetic Aspects of Flowering Response to Climate Change
    
4.9.    Simulation of Phenology for Future Climate
        
    References

A. Bhattacharya
    
5.1.    Chlorophyll
    
5.2.    Response to Drought Stress
    
5.3.    CO2 Fixation Under Drought
    
5.4.    Response to High Temperature Stress
    
5.5.    Response to Low Temperature Stress
    
5.6.    Effect of Cold Stress on CO2 Fixation
    
5.7.    Cold Acclimation and its Role in Providing Freeze-tolerance
    
5.8.    Response to Salinity Stress
    
5.9.    CO2 Fixation Under Salinity Stress
    
5.10.    Response to High Light Intensity Stress
    
5.11.    Stress-induced Changes
         
    5.11.1.    Effects on Photosynthetic Pigments
    5.11.2.    Effects on Photosystems
    5.11.3.    Effects on Gas-exchange Characteristics        
    5.11.4.    Effects on Activities of key Photosynthetic Enzymes
    
5.12.    Improvement in Photosynthetic Capacity Under Stress by Engineering Photosynthesis-related Genes or Transcription Factors
    
    5.12.1.    Transfer of C4 genes/traits to C3 plants
    5.12.2.    Role of Transcription Factors in Regulation of Genes Involved in Photosynthesis
    
5.13    Role of Mitogen-activated Protein Kinases (MAPKs) in Photosynthesis
    
5.14    Conclusion and Future Prospects
        
References

A. Bhattacharya

6.1.    Macronutrients (Primary)
    
6.2.    Macronutrients (Secondary and Tertiary)
    
6.3.    Micronutrients
    
6.4.    Inter-relationships Between Nutrient Elements
    
    6.4.1.    Synergism
    6.4.2.    Antagonism
    
6.5.    Potassium Inter-relationships with Macronutrients
    
    6.5.1.    Potassium Inter-relationships with Secondary Nutrients
    6.5.2.    Potassium Inter-relationships with Micronutrients
    
6.6.    Nutrient Deficiency
    
6.7.    Role of Mineral Nutrition Against Environmental Stress
    
6.8.    Role of Mineral Nutrition Against Drought Stress
    
6.9.    Role of Potassium in Abiotic Stress Resistance
    
    6.9.1.    Potassium and Drought Stress
    6.9.2.    Cell Elongation and Cell Membrane Stability
    6.9.3.    Aquaporins and Water Uptake
    6.9.4.    Osmotic Adjustment
    6.9.5.    Stomatal Regulation
    6.9.6.    Detoxification of Reactive Oxygen Species
    6.9.7.    Potassium and Salt Stress
    6.9.8.    Potassium and Low-Temperature Stress
    6.9.9.    Potassium and Waterlogging Stress
    
6.10.    Partition of Photosynthates under Nutrient Deficiency
        
References

7.1.    Single Action Gene
    
    7.1.1.    Osmoprotectants
    7.1.2.    Detoxifying Genes
    7.1.3.    Late Embryogenesis Abundant (LEA) Protein
    7.1.4.    Transporter Genes
    7.1.5.    Multifunctional Genes for Lipid Biosynthesis
    7.1.6.    Heat -shock Protein Genes
    
7.2.    Regulatory Gene
    
    7.2.1.    Transcription Factors
    7.2.2.    Signal Transduction Genes
    
7.3.    Choice of Promoters
    
7.4.    Physiological Evaluation of Stress Effect
    
7.5.    Conclusions
        
References

A. Bhattacharya
    
8.1.    Glycolysis in Plants
    
    8.1.1.    Oxidative Decarboxylation of Pyruvate
    
8.2.    Citric Acid Cycle
    
8.3.    Oxidative Phosphorylation
    
    8.3.1.    Efficiency of ATP Production
    
8.4.    Photorespiration
    
8.5.    Effect of Abiotic Stresses 
    
8.6.    Effect of Drought on Respiration
    
8.7.    Effect of Waterlogging on Respiration
    
    8.7.1.    Plant Metabolism and Energetic Alteration Under 
        Waterlogging
    
8.8.    Effect of Low Oxygen on Respiration
    
8.9.    Effect of Higher Day and Night Temperature on Respiration
    
8.10.    Respiration Under Low Temperature Stress
    
8.11.    Effect of Salt Stress on Respiration
    
    8.11.1.    Reactive Oxygen Species
    8.11.2.    Physiological and Biochemical Processes
    
8.12.    Effect of High CO2 Concentration on Respiration
        
References

1.    Introduction

2.    Materials for Boat Construction

3.    Engines and Propellers

4.    Fuel Saving

5.    Development of Computer Aided Designing (CAD)

6.    Type and Size of Boats
    
    6.1    Trawlers
    6.2    Otter trawlers
    6.3    Side trawlers
    6.4    Stern trawlers
    6.5    Freezer trawlers
    6.6    Purse seiners
    6.7    Long liners
    
7.    Fishing Equipment
    
    7.1    Echo sounders and sonars
    7.2    Global positioning system (GPS)
    
8.    Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS)
    
    8.1    Advantages of the GMDSS over the current system
    8.2    Implementation of the GMDSS requirements
    8.3    The main types of equipment used in GMDSS
    
9.    Distress Alert Transmitters (DAT)
    
10.    Automatic Identification System (AIS)
    
11.    Handling Equipments
    
    11.1    Advances in deck machinery
    11.2    Automated long line system
    11.3    Automated squid jigging machines
    11.4    Net haulers
    11.5    Net drums
    11.6    Gantries
    11.7    Stern ramp
    
12.    Side Thruster
    
13.    Satellites and Remote Sensing
    
14.    Vessel Monitoring System (VMS)
    
References

1.    Introduction
    
2.     Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries
    
3.     Technologies for Responsible Fishing
    3.1     Technology for bycatch reduction in trawl fisheries
    3.2     Technology for by catch reduction in purse seine fisheries
    3.3     Technology for by catch reduction in gillnet fisheries
    3.4     Technology for by catch reduction in hook and line fisheries
    3.5     Technology for by catch reduction in trap fisheries
    
4.     Environment-Friendly Fishing Gears
    4.1     Reducing bottom impact of towed gears
    4.2     Semi-pelagic trawl system
    4.3     Benthic release panels
    4.4     Remote controlled otter boards (smart trawling)
    4.5     Ground gear modifications
    4.6     Otter boards bridles and sweeps
    
5.     Energy Conservation in Fishing
    5.1     Fishing gear and methods
    5.2     Vessel technology
    5.3    Engines
    5.4    Reduction gear, propeller and nozzle
    5.5     Sail-assisted propulsion
    5.6     Adoption of advanced technology
    5.7    Conservation, management and enhancement of fishery resources
    
6.     Conclusion
    
References

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Indian Initiatives in Tuna Fishery
    
3.    Tuna Harvesting Techniques
    3.1    Locating tuna
    3.2    Fishing gear and machinery
    3.3    Post harvest catch handling and storage techniques
    
4.    Post Harvest Handling Techniques for the Production of Sashimi Quality Tuna
        
    4.1    Killing and cleaning tools
    4.2    The ten easy steps to sashimi quality tuna
    
Acknowledgements
    
References

1.       Introduction

2.    Lipid Storage in Fish
    
3.      Factors Influencing Nature of Lipids in Fish
    
4.    Composition of Fish Oils
    4.1    Nature and composition of fatty acids
    4.2     Triacyl glycerols
    4.3     Phospholipids
    4.4     Diacyl glycerol ethers
    4.5     Wax esters
    4.6     Hydrocarbons
    4.7     Sterols
    
5.    Autoxidation of Fish Lipids
        
    5.1    Mechanism of autoxidation
        
    5.2     Factors influencing lipid autoxidation
        
    5.3     Control and prevention of autoxidation
    
6.    Lipid Autolysis
    
7.    Rancidity Problem in Fish
    7.1     Indices of oxidative rancidity
    
References

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Structure of Protein
    2.1     Primary structure
    2.2     Secondary structure
    2.3     Turns and Bends in the Polypeptide Backbone
    2.4     Tertiary structure
    2.5     Quaternary structure
    
3.    Protein Denaturation
    
4.    Conditions Affecting Protein Structure
    
5.    Fish Proteins
    5.1    Sarcoplasmic proteins
    5.2    Myofbrillar protein
    5.3    Stroma proteins
    5.4    Functional properties of fish proteins
    
References
    
Further reading

1     Introduction

2     Bacterial Flora on Fish

3     Products of Bacterial Activity

4      Bacterial Flora of Fish Caught from Different Waters

5      Fish Spoilage and Bacterial Flora

6      Bacterial Contaminations
    
7      Bacterial Contamination of Harvested Fish
    
8      Growth of Spoilage Bacteria
    
9      Scombroid Poisoning
    
10      Microorganisms on Iced Fish
    10.1     Crustaceans
    10.2     Molluscs
    
References

1.    What is Surimi?
    
2.    Fisheries Resources for Surimi Production

    
3.    Historical Perspective of the Surimi Industry
    
4.    Present World Scenario of Surimi Industry

5.    Surimi Industry in India
    
6.    Processing Technology for Surimi from Light Muscle Fish 
    6.1     Types of fish used for surimi
    6.2     Heading, gutting, and deboning
    6.3     Mincing
    6.4     Washing and dewatering
    6.5     Stabilizing surimi with cryoprotectants
    6.6      Rapid freezing and packaging
    
7.    Surimi Processing from Dark Muscle Fish
    
8.    Quality Evaluation of Surimi
    
9.    Microbial Quality of Surimi
    
10.    Surimi based Products
    10.1     Fish cakes
    10.2     Fish balls
    10.3     Crab analogs (Crab leg meat analog)
    
11.    Scallop Analogs
    
12.    Moulded Products
    
13.    Important Considerations in Surimi and Surimi based Products
    13.1    Gelation
    
14.    Functional Properties of Surimi

15.    Cryoprotectants in Surimi
    15.1    Mechanism of action of cryoprotectants
    
16.    Future Development in Fish Protein Stabilization
    
References

    
1.    Introduction
    
2.    Containers
    2.1     Materials used for forming containers
    2.2    Types of cans
    2.3    Labeling and coding
    2.4    Can seam
    
3.    Microbilogical Aspects
    3.1     Organisms associated with non acid foods
    3.2     Heat resistance of bacteria
    3.3     Logarithmic order of destruction
    3.4     Thermal death time curve
    3.5     Determination of TDT and survivor number
    3.6     F-value
    3.7    12 D concept
    
4.    Heat Penetration Aspects
    4.1    Factors that influence heat penetration
    4.2    Measurement of cold spot temperature
    
5.    Thermal Process Calculation
    5.1    General method
    5.2    Formula method
    
6    Inoculated Pack Studies

7.    Effect of Thermal Processing on Food Quality
    7.1    Cook value
    
8.    Steps of Canning Fish
        
    8.1    Handling raw material
    8.2    Dressing and size cutting
    8.3    Salt treatment
    8.4    Precooking
    8.5    Smoking
    8.6    Packing/ Filling
    8.7    Exhausting and seaming
    8.8     Retorting and cooling
    8.9    Inspection and storage

References

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Resources
    2.1    Crustacea
    2.2    Zooplankton
    2.3     Mollusca
    2.4     Insecta
    2.5     Thallophyta
    
3.    Biosynthesis
    
4.    Structure
    
5.    Detection and Estimation of Chitosan
    
6.    Specification of Chitin and Chitosan
    
7.    Economics of Chitin Recovery and Production
    
8.    Social and Economic Value of Chitosan
    
9.    Production of  Chitosan from Chitin
    
10.    Production of Glucosamine Hydrochloride
    
11.    Recent Advances in Applications of Chitin and Chitosan
    11.1    Applications of chitin, chitosan and glucosamine hydrochloride
    
12.    Advantages of Chitosan
    12.1    Cholesterol and overweight lowering
    12.2    Cholesterol lowering in Human
    12.3    Osteoarthritis prevention and Treatment
    12.4    Carrier for nasal application of drugs
    
13.    Conclusion
    
References and Further Reading

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Dressing of Fish
    
3.    Preparation of Minced Meat
    
4.    Preparation of Flavor Ingredients
    
5.    Preparation of Colouring Ingredients
    
6.    Leaching of Minced Meat

7.    Ingredients Selected and their Role
    
8.    Preparation of Flavors
    
9.    Starch and its Role
    
10.    Extraction of Colours and its Application
    
11.    Taste Eenhancers
    
12.    Addition of Oil
    
13.    Standardized Preparation of Prawn Analogue from Bigeye Snapper
    
14.    Prawn Analogue Developed from Lizard Fish
    
15.    Cooking of the Shrimp Analogue
    
16.    Battering and Breading of the Analogue
    
17.    Freezing of the Product
    
18.    Frying of Prawn Analogue
    
19.    Packing of the Analogue
    
20.    Storage of Analogue
    
21.    Bacteriological Quality of Analogue
    
References

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Edible coatings used in Seafood Products
    2.1    Pre-dust
    2.2    Batter
    2.3    Breading
    
3.    The Coating Process
    3.1    Portioning
    3.2    Pre-dusting
    3.3    Application of batter
    3.4    Application of breading
    3.5    Pre-frying / Flash frying
    3.6    Freezing
    3.7    Packing and storage
    
4.    Coating Process Equipment
    4.1    Forming machine
    4.2    Pre-dusting machine
    4.3    Batter application equipment
    4.4    Breading application equipment
    4.5    Fryers
    4.6    Spiral freezers
    
5.    Coating Process Lines
    5.1     Single line breading system
    5.2     Tandem line breading system
    5.3     Tempura or batter-fry  Line breading system
    5.4     Tempura-Japanese Line breading system
    
6.    Coated Fishery Products
    6.1    Fish fingers
    6.2     Coated fish sillets
    6.3     Fish mince based coated products
    6.4     Coated shrimp products
    6.5     Coated squid products
    6.6     Coated bivalve products
    6.7     Crab claw balls
    
7.    Common Quality Problems Encountered during the Coating of Seafood
    7.1     Voids
    7.2     Blow off
    7.3     Pillowing
    7.4     Tailings
    
8.     Innovative Processes in the Production of Coated Products
    
References

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Different Forms of Value Added Products
    
3.    Production of Fish Steaks
    
4.    Battered and Breaded Products
    
5.    Minced Fish Based Products
    5.1    Fish cakes
    5.2    Fish cutlets
    5.3    Fish sausage
    5.4    Dehydrated salted fish cakes
    5.5    Fish fingers
    5.6    Fish burgers
    5.7    Fish balls
    5.8    Fish wafers
    5.9    Fish soup powder
    
6.    Surimi and Surimi Based Products
    6.1    Kamaboko
    6.2    Chikuwa
    6.3    Tempura
    6.4    Hampen
    
7.    Modern Seafood Analog Products
    7.1    Imitation crab meat
    
8.    Marinated Fish Products
    
9.    Fermented Fish Products
    9.1    Fish pickle
    
10.    Sous Vide Cook-Chill Products
    
11.    Precooked Seafood Entrees
    
12.    Future Needs
    
References

1.    Modern Packaging Systems
    1.1    Modified atmosphere packaging
    1.2    Active packaging-principles and applications
    1.3    Aseptic packaging
    1.4    Shrink packaging
    1.5    Vacuum packaging
    1.6    Thermal processing
    1.7     Retort pouch packaging
    
2.    Packaging of Fish and Fishery Products
    2.1    Packaging materials used
    
3.    Packaging Requirements for Fish and Fishery Products
    3.1    Packaging of fresh fish
    3.2     Packaging of processed seafoods
    
Suggested Reading

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Bacteria of Public Health Significance in Fish Handling
    
3.    Sanitary and Hygienic Precautions to be Followed in Fish Handling
    3.1    Requirements for the fishing vessels
    
4.    Requirements for the Landing Sites/Auction Centres
    
5.    Requirements for the Processing Centres
    5.1     Use only potable water or clean sea water for washing fish
    5.2     Never put fish on sand or any unclean surface
    5.3     Lighting and ventilation
    5.4     Water supply
    5.5     Ice
    5.6     Utensils for fish handling
    5.7     Washing of utensils and fish contact surfaces
    5.8     Workers’ hygiene and health
    5.9     Rodent control measures
    5.10     Fly control measures
    5.11     Waste disposal
    5.12     Storage of toxic substances
    5.13     Toilet facilities
    
Acknowledgement
    
References

1    Biological Hazards
    1.1    Bacterial hazards
    
2.     Fungal Hazards
    
3.    Viral Hazards
    3.1     Hepatitis A virus
    3.2       Norwalk virus
    
4.    Parasitic Hazards
    4.1     Parasitic worms
    4.2    Protozoan parasites
    
5.    Aquatic Biotoxins
    5.1    Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP)
    5.2    Diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP)
    5.3    Amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP)
    5.4    Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP)
    5.5     Puffer fish (Tetrodotoxic) poisoning (PFP)
    
6.    Pathogen Survival Through Cooking
    
References

1.    Introduction
    
2.    The Scenario in India
    
3.    The Concept of Hygiene in Indian Food Industry
    
4.    Food Safety- The Reality
    4.1      Food import inspection and certification
    4.2     Laboratories for export certification
    4.3      Food export inspection & certification
    
5.    What is HACCP? & What is in Practice?
    
6.    Where We Stand?

7.    Success of Application of Food Safety Management System
    7.1.    Pre-requisites for HACCP
    
8.    Logical Steps of HACCP
    8.1      Assemble HACCP team
    8.2     Describe product
    8.3     Identify intended use
    8.4     Construct flow diagram
    8.5     On site confirmation of flow diagram
    8.6     Principles of HACCP
    
9.    Conclusion
    
References
    
Further References

Index
    
About the Editors

1. Introduction

Afghanistan imperiled by decades of war, is  now a country on the rebound. With the days of relative peace up on the Afghan people, resources are being gathered and projects put onto place, in an effort to revitalize the previously stagnant economy. The rehabilitation of the agricultural economy in Afghanistan depends to a large extent on whether Afghanistan’s Agricultural Sector will be able to recover from the effects of war, serious consecutive droughts and a multitude of endemic crop/ livestock diseases. Afghanistan is a pastoral country with more than 85 per cent of the land area incapable of growing even a narrow range of crops, thus being largely rangeland.  Agriculture produces food, provides food security, enhances crop production, generates cash incomes for rural and urban populations, provides fuel and transport, and produces value added goods which can have multiplier effects and creates a need for services.  Furthermore, agricultural diversity production and income provide year-round employment, and spread risk. Livestock also form a major capital reserve of farming households.

1. Basic Information

Benin is situated in West Africa at inter-tropical zone between the parallels 6°30 and 12°30 North and the meridian lines 1° and 3°40 East. The Republic of Benin is limited in the north by the Republic of Niger and to the North-West by Burkina Faso, in the south by the Atlantic Ocean, in the west by Togo and in the east by the Federal Republic of Nigeria. The Republic of Benin extends over 700 km length from the Atlantic Ocean to river Niger. Its width varies from 125 km, along the coast, to 325 km, in the northern part. It covers an area of 112.622 km².

With the third General Census of the Population and Habitat in February 2002, Benin counted 6,769,914 inhabitants thereby giving an average density of 60.11 inhabitants per km². Currently the population is estimated to nearly 8 million inhabitants with a natural rate of increase of 2.8 per cent. The average densities estimated from the last census of the population vary between 16 inhabitants per km² in the department of Borgou and 322 inhabitants per km² in the department of Atlantic.

1. Basic Information on the Country and  Agricultural Status
 
1.1. Location of Côte d’Ivoire

Cote D’ivoire (Ivory Coast) is located in West Africa, between the Equator and the Tropic of Cancer, with an area of 3, 22,462 km². It is bordered on the north by Mali and Burkina Faso, no the west by Liberia and Guinea, on the east by Ghana and on the south by the Gulf of Guinea, stretching across nearly 550 km. The economic capital Abidjan is with a population of more than 3 million people and Yamoussoukro, the political capital, has more than 1,50,000 inhabitants.

1.2. Population 
The Ivorian population is 1,53,66,672 people in 1998, of which 26 per cent are foreigners (4,000,047), with an annual population growth rate of 3.3 per cent and a density of 48 habitants/km². 53.8 per cent of the population is under the age of 20 years. The age group between 21 and 60 years is 41 per cent. These figures show the youthfulness of the Ivorian population. The average life expectancy is 65 years.

1. Basic Information

1.1. Location and Size
 
Ghana, lying between latitudes 4º 30’ to 11ºN and longitudes 1º 10’E to 3º15’W, shares common borders in the east, north and west with the Republics of Togo, Burkina Faso, and Cote d’Ivoire respectively.  The country covers a total area (including water bodies) of 238,537 square kilometres.  

1.2. Climate
 
Ghana has a tropical climate with temperatures ranging between 21ºC and 32ºC. Mean annual rainfall in Ghana is generally lower in the northern part of the country (800-900 mm) and increases southwards (2100-2200 mm) albeit a small part of the eastern coastal belt has low mean annual rainfall of 700-800 mm. Humidity figures range from 78 to 87 per cent across the country. Although Ghana cannot be described as a mountainous country, there are a number of highlands and steep escarpments in the middle portion and some parts of the northern zone. The land is generally flat with more than half of the country at an altitude of 200 m.

1. Country Background

India is one of the oldest civilisations in the world with rich cultural heritage. India has become self-sufficient in agricultural production, and is now the tenth industrialised country in the world. It covers an area of 32,87,263 sq km. Lying entirely in the northern hemisphere, the mainland extends between latitudes 8°4' and 37°6' north, longitudes 68°7' and 97°25' east, and measures about 3,214 km from north to south between the extreme latitudes and about 2,933 km from east to west between the extreme longitudes. 
Agriculture is the mainstay of the Indian economy, as it constitutes the backbone of the rural livelihood security system. It is the core of planned economic development in India, as the trickle-down effect of agriculture is significant in reducing poverty and regional inequality in the country. Growth in agriculture has a maximum cascading impact on other sectors, leading to the spread of benefits over the entire economy and the largest segment of population. 141 million hectares is the net sown area, while 190 million hectares is the gross cropped area. The net irrigated area is 57 million hectares with a cropping intensity of 134 per cent. Eighty-two per cent of farmers have small and marginal land holdings.

1. Introduction

Iran, with an area of 1648 thousand sq.kms.,  is situated in the eastern portion of the northern hemisphere, in the south west of Asia, and is considered as one of the Middle East countries. Iran is a mountainous country with a variety of climates. The average temperature and rainfall for the whole country are quoted as 18ºC and 240 mm respectively (CAPES, 1996). The country is also organized into 28 provinces. Over the past two decades, rapid rate of population growth has been a major source of concern in Islamic Republic of Iran. The population of the country passed the 60 million figures in 1993 and is projected to reach 86 million by the year 2010. In fact, the Iranian population has doubled in this period (CAPES, 1996). For example, according to the 1991 census, the female population of 15 years and above was 15 million (Anonymous, 1998). However, thanks to considerable investments and well-organized and directed national population planning program, population growth rate is now 1.5 percent in the urban and two percent in the rural areas. At the national level, the figure is 1.65 percent (CAPES, 1996).