eChapters

To overcome the limitation of proximate analysis P.J. Van Soest in 1963 developed a method which makes use of the concept that the dry matter of plant origin consists of two principal parts:
    1.    Cell contents 
    2.    Cell wall contents

The method is efficient to take care of the defects in the principle of estimating crude fiber and NFE by proximate analysis. Van Soest has partitioned the carbohydrates into various fractions by a system of analysis using detergents. Cell contents are soluble in neutral detergent includes lipids, sugars, organic acids, starch, soluble proteins, NPN compounds and other water soluble materials, where as cell wall (fiber) is insoluble in neutral detergent but it is soluble in acid detergent includes hemicelluloses, cellulose, lignin, lignified nitrogen compounds, heat damages proteins, keratins and silica. This method of partitioning carbohydrate is essential to be expressed in case of ruminants, due to their capacities for making use of different fractions of crude fibre especially the cellulose and hemicellulose, while the simple stomached animals can rarely do so. 

Soil consistency is a term used to designate the manifestation of different physical forces acting within the soil at various moisture levels. The consistency limits, also known as ‘Atterberg Limits’ (Atterberg, 1911; 12) are defined by the water content of the soil to create specified degree of consistency. These limits are – (i) Liquid limit or upper plastic limit, (ii) Plastic limit or lower plastic limit and (iii) Sticky limit.

8.1 Determination of Liquid Limit or Upper Plastic Limit

Equipments and Materials

Liquid limit device (Casagrande, 1932) and accessories, spatula, dish, oven, moisture box, balance, desiccator

Introduction

A sustainable approach to managing pests by combining biological, cultural, physical and chemical tools in a way that minimizes economic, health and environmental risks. The objective for IPM practitioners is to minimize risks to human health and the environment from the pest management actions implemented. IPM is a holistic approach that seeks to manage pests by using methods that are effective, economically sound, and ecologically compatible. IPM practitioners base decisions on information that is collected systematically as they integrate economic, environmental, and social goals. IPM promotes the use and integration of biological control agent as one of the strategies for pest and disease management. Because, biological control of plant pathogen is a potential alternative to the use of environment harming chemical pesticides in agriculture.

[Bray’s Method (Bray and Kurtz, 1945) – Acid Soils]

Introduction

The term available phosphorus (P) refers to the inorganic form, occurring in the soil solution, which is almost exclusively ‘orthophosphate’. This orthophosphate occurs in several forms and combinations, and only a small fraction of the total amount present may be available to plants, which is of direct relevance in assessing the P fertility level.

The phosphate concentration in solution is governed by heterogeneous equilibria in which it takes part. This situation can be represented as follows:

P adsorbed in solid phase ↔ P in the soil solution ↔ P precipitated

The phosphorus absorbed by plants from soil solution comes from the soil solution in which it exists as inorganic orthophosphate ions viz., H₂PO₄ ^–, HPO₄ ^2– and PO₄ ^3–. The most accessible ion is H₂PO₄ ^–, with the greatest activity coefficient, followed by HPO₄ ^2–. The quantity of P accessible to the plants is influenced by a series of soil properties. The relative abundance of these ions is, however, relatively dependent on the soil pH. For soils having a pH between 4.5 and 7.5, ions of H₂PO₄ ^– as well as HPO₄ ^2– exist in soil solution. At a pH of 7.2, H₂PO₄ ^–and HPO₄ ^2– ions have an equal activity, and, when the pH is strongly alkaline (>8.3), ions of HPO₄ ^2– predominate in solution. Above pH of 9.0, the trivalent ion (PO₄ ^3–) becomes more important than H₂PO₄ ^–, but even at a pH of 12, the HPO₄ ^2– concentration is still greater than that of PO₄ ^3–. Soluble phosphorus may be adsorptively retained at the surface of colloidal particles. This retention is more marked when the higher amounts of clay and sesquioxides are present. Relatively, the available inorganic P tends to accumulate in its most stable state under prevailing conditions, thus, in calcareous soils, the available inorganic P would be acid-soluble, whereas, in acid soils the adsorbed P would be more available. In flooded soils, with low oxidation potential, certain forms of P, normally considered as unavailable, for example, iron and phosphate, can be regarded as available. In most soils, the main source of orthophosphate is organic matter unless, of course, direct fertilization, with soluble phosphate, has been made.

Sample Preparation

 Cheese sample is prepared by passing through 8 mesh sieve three times or

grate sample and mix thoroughly or grind to a uniform mass in a glass pestle

and mortar. Keep the sample in an airtight container until the time of analysis.

 1 Determination of Moisture Content in Cheese

 Introduction

The moisture content of cheese is defined as the loss in mass, expressed as a

percentage by mass when the product is heated in a hot air oven at 102 ± 2°C

to constant mass.

45.1 Introduction

Mosquitoes of various species breed in ponds, swamps, gutters, and other bodies of stagnant water, carrying parasites that cause malaria, filaria, dengue fever, chikungunya, Japanese encephalitis, Zika and yellow fever. Various approaches have been used to control mosquito populations to reduce the incidence of vector borne diseases, including chemical, physical, and biological measures. In all types of habitats, biological control against mosquito vectors is safe, friendly, and cost effective. Mosquito biological control entails introducing natural enemies such as parasites, disease organisms, and predatory animals into the environment.

Hypocalcaemia, commonly referred to as milk fever, is a metabolic disorder in dairy animals, particularly high-producing cows, that occurs due to low calcium levels in the blood (serum calcium less than 8 mg/dl in cows). It predominantly affects animals in the peri-parturient period, as the demand for calcium for colostrum and milk synthesis outpaces the body’s ability to maintain adequate blood calcium levels. The disorder not only affects animal welfare but also results in significant economic losses due to reduced milk production, fertility issues, and increased veterinary costs. Nutritional management plays a pivotal role in preventing and controlling milk fever, making it a key focus for dairy farmers and veterinarians.
Hypocalcaemia in specific species
1. Ruminants (Cattle, Buffalo, Sheep, and Goats)
Milk fever (Peri-parturient hypocalcaemia): Commonly affects dairy animals around calving.
2. Small animals (Dogs and Cats) Eclampsia (Puerperal tetany): Seen in lactating bitches and queens. It results from excessive calcium loss through milk. Clinical signs: Restlessness, panting, and muscle tremors, tetany, seizures, and hyperthermia if untreated.

INTRODUCTION

Northeast India comprises the contiguous seven sister states.viz., Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura and the Himalayan state of Sikkim. The Northeastern states of India are blessed with diversified fish fauna which assumes special interest due to the fact that the region is grained by two important drainages viz., Brahamaputra-Barak and Chindwin Irrawaddy. (Gurumayum and Choudhury, 2009). Riverine fisheries resources of Northeastern States comprise of 19,150 km of streams and rivers. Except the Brahmaputra and Barak Valleys in Assam and Imphal Valley in Manipur, the Northeast mainly comprises of Hills and Mountains which form 65% of its territory (Suguman, 1998).

Variation in Chromosome Structure

Natural variation exists in chromosome structure

Changes in chromosome structure include deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations

The loss of genetic material in a deletion tends to be detrimental to an organism

Duplications tend to be less harmful than deletions

Duplications provide additional material for gene evolution, sometimes leading to the formation of gene families

Copy number variation is relatively common among members of the same species

Comparative genomic hybridization is used to detect chromosome deletions and duplications

Inversions often occur without phenotypic consequences

Inversion heterozygotes may produce abnormal chromosomes due to crossing over

Translocations involve exchanges between different chromosomes

Individuals with reciprocal translocations may produce abnormal gametes due to the segregation of chromosomes

PHYTOPLASMA OR MYCOPLASMA

Definition

Phytoplasmas are unicellular, ultramicroscopic, walless, prokaryotic, self- replicating, highly pleomorphic, filterable organisms or entities.

Mycoplasma lack rigid cell wall, being surrounded only by single triple unit membrane which allows them to be highly plemorphic. They assume vast array of shapes and size. They require sterols (Lipoproteins) for growth. Mycoplasma cannot be grown on artificial media and they reproduce by budding and binary fissions.

A protein that is deposited in various tissues of body called amyloid. Amyloidosis is a disorder of protein folding, in which normally soluble proteins accumulate in the tissues as abnormal insoluble fibrils (or filaments), thus disrupting their function The deposited proteins, generically known as amyloid, damage the structure and function of the tissues and so cause serious disease which is often fatal when it affects major organs. There are several techniques to observe the amyloid which is as follows.
Highman’s Congo Red Technique
Tissues fix in 10% neutral buffered formalin and process for routine paraffin sections The formal saline is a better choice
Protocol
1) Sections to water, removing pigment where necessary.
2) Stain in Congo red solution, 5 minutes.
3) Differentiate with the alcoholic potassium hydroxide solution, 3-10 seconds.
4) Wash in water, stain nuclei in alum hematoxylin and differentiate blue.
5) Dehydrate, clear, and mount.
Observations
Red : Amyloid, elastic fibers, eosinophil granules: Blue : Nuclei
Chemical reagents
Immerse in alkaline sodium chloride solution for 20 minutes.

This chapter introduces practical laboratory exercises for objective evaluation of wool. It provides procedures for measuring fibre diameter and variation, crimp, staple length, moisture regain, clean wool yield and medullation, along with basic grading exercises. Emphasis is placed on representative sampling, accurate measurement, appropriate units, conditioning and careful recording of raw data. The practical work connects the scientific principles of earlier chapters with hands-on wool evaluation and helps students interpret measurements for grading and end-use recommendations.

Cytogenetics helps in solving intricate problems of evolution of economic plants and their relationship with relevant wild ancestors. Ornamental plants provide very interesting material for evolutionary studies. Such a study would reveal the nature of the evolutionary steps and clarify the changes that the breeding system and chromosomes underwent. The genetic and cytogenetic reasons for the diversity in ornamentals would also be unraveled. Such a study also helps to chalk out a meaningful breeding methodology for genetic improvement. A systematic programme of genetics and plant breeding of ornamental plants was started at CSIR-NBRI. The objectives of the programme were both basic or creative (experimental analysis of the causes of variation and evolution) and applied or productive (experimental synthesis of new and novel variation with better putative parents). Evaluation of colchiploids of ornamentals with different genetic systems was being carried out at CSIR-NBRI, with a view to explore the possibility of their introduction in floriculture trade. Superiority of polyploid cultivars, in general, has been the main factor, which has induced gardeners to raise artificial tetraploids. Most of the garden forms are of hybrid origin, raised over a number of years and named differently by different workers and nurserymen. More often than not, there is no authentic record of their ancestory and they show a great deal of morphological and cytological polymorphism (Khoshoo 1968, 1990, Datta and Banerji (1995). 

National Horticulture Board

Commercial floriculture includes production of cut flowers, foliage plants, bedding plants and growing and forcing bulbs and corms of flowering plants for whole and retail sales. The floriculture industry has become highly specialized. Floriculture industry uses many devices to ensure steady supply of flowers and foliage plants irrespective of the season and minimum loss to industry, because of perishable nature of flowers.

Proximate analysis of the feeds and fodders does not give any idea about their nutritive value, because availability of nutrients varies according to the feed stuffs. The major loss of nutrients take place in body after ingestion of feed is through feces. Hence, it is very essential to know the actual amount of feed digested by the animals. Losses which take place after digestion are more or less comparable in different feedstuffs.

Digestibility
Digestibility of a feed can be defined as that proportion of feed which is not being excreted in the faeces and hence assumed to be absorbed by the animal. It is expressed as percentage (% digestibility or digestibility coefficient).

1.    Blister blight of tea
        
2.    Red rust
        
3.    Black rot
        
4.    Black root

VIROIDS

Defnition

Viroid is circular, encapsulated, low molecular weight (1.1-1.3x105), self replicating, highly infectious ssRNA molecules .

General Characters

1. The viroid exists in in vivo as unencapsulated RNA.
2. They never contain any protein coat (capsid).
3. Genome of the viriod naked, single stranded ( RNA) with 250-400 nucleotide, either linear or mostly circular. Viroids are smaller in size than viruses i.e 50 nm or 1.1 to 1.3 X 103 molecular weight.
4. Despite its small size, the infectious RNA is replicated autonomously in susceptible cells; that is, no helper virus is required for multiplication.
5. The infectious RNA consists of one molecular species only.
6. Viroids are notable to synthesize protein and replicase enzyme required for replication.
7. Viroids replicate by direct RNA, copying in which all components required for viroid multiplication including RNA polymerase are provided by the host.
8. They cause diseases only in plants.
9. Viroids concentration and translocation is higher in growing parts of the plants (up to 0.2 mm from the apex)
10. Most of the types of symptoms observed with viral diseases also occurs viroids like epinasty, leaf distortions, vein clearing, localized chlorotic or necrotic spots, mottling of leaves, necrosis of leaves, and death of the whole plants.

Temperature is a fundamental property of usually used to characterize the thermal condition of a system. The growth of any biological system is optimal within certain ranges of temperature and inhibited or ceased beyond this boundary. In addition to plant growth, the significance of temperature on agriculture can be ascertained by its role on physical, chemical and biological processes occurring in soil. Therefore, to study these soil properties intensively measurement of soil temperature is essential.

10.1 Measurement of Soil Temperature

Temperature of any system cannot be directly measured. It can only be estimated by its influence on some properties (thermometric properties) which respond to the variation in the intensity of heat of that system. These thermometric properties include volume, pressure, length, electrical resistance, thermal emf of the matter. Instruments built to take the advantage of any of these thermometric properties of the matter are called thermometer.

[Williams and Steinbergs (1959) Method]

Introduction

Sulphur (S) occurs in numerous forms in soil, viz., sulphites, sulphates, sulphides and in organic compounds. It is considered that the most accessible form is ‘sulphate’ (SO₄ ^2–). The organic forms of S compounds become assimilable, especially following, microbiological transformation into SO₄ ^2–. The mineralization of organic S in a soil depends primarily upon the N:S ratio, and any SO₄ ^2– formed may be fixed against extraction, particularly if much Fe or Ba is present or if the soil is very acid. Despite the fact that the plants absorb S almost exclusively as SO₄ ^2–, mobility of SO₄ ^2– in soil may not always yield satisfactory results in accordance with the time of sampling, while assessing SO₄ ^2– availability.