eChapters

10.1. Success Story of Mahila Umang Producer Company Ltd.

Mahila Umang Producer Company is established at Almora district of Uttarakhand, India. The company is fully operated by the hill women of Uttarakhand. There were 1464 members associated in this company. The company was established as a formal Farmer Producer Company in the year 2009 by the help of the promoting Non- government Organisation ‘Grassroots’. Before that it was working as a conglomerate of SHGs. 

Introduction

The present world is still dominated by the villages. In sprite of the craze towards city life majority of the people in this globe prefer to stay in their village’s n the midst of nature. Hence the world population is predominantly rural. More than 2/3 the world’s population still lives in villages. India is basically a land of villages. In spite of the increase trend towards urbanisation Indian societies become meaningful and fruitful only if the villages and there problems are studies carefully. Villages existed in India even during the Vedic period and also prior to that. Some even described these villages as self contained little republics.

Tripura is a state in North-East India which borders Bangladesh, Mizoram and Assam. It is surrounded by Bangladesh on its north, south and west: the length of its international border is 856 km. It shares a 53 km long border with Assam and a 109 km long border with Mizoram. The state is connected with the rest of India by only one road (NH-44) that runs through the hills to the border of Karimganj District in Assam and then winds through the states of Meghalaya, Assam and North Bengal to Calcutta. At the time of Tripura’s merger with effect from October 15 1949 with the Indian Union, the major mode of farming was shifting cultivation or ‘jhum’, which produced little surplus. A small proportion of the plain lands of the State were under settled agriculture undertaken by Bengalis, and the main crop was rice. Most of the plain lands of the State were not under cultivation and were covered with cane-brakes and marshes. Thus at the time of formation of the State, the economy was predominantly agricultural and forest-based, with no industrial base, a low level of urbanization and limited infrastructure.

1. Introduction

Human activities significantly lead to deterioration of ecological systems, affect individual organisms, and disrupt natural ecosystems. The rise in foreign compounds, such as heavy metals and pesticides, in aquatic ecosystems due to human activities has spurred extensive global research efforts (Wester et al., 2002). The Union’s Water Framework Directive (WFD) mandates monitoring programs to assess water body health. In environmental studies, understanding the impact of contaminants on aquatic life requires a multifaceted approach (Ullah and Zorriehzahra, 2015). Biomarkers that observe biological responses at various levels offer crucial insights into the presence and bioavailability of toxicants, complementing traditional methods (Yancheva et al., 2016). These indicators, termed early warning signals, are vital for evaluating exposure, effect mechanisms, susceptibility to contaminants, and enhancing predictive models (Yancheva et al., 2016). Integrating biomarkers into ecological studies provides a holistic understanding of environmental stressors and their implications in aquatic organisms.

2. Why is fish used as a model organism in ecotoxicological studies?

According to the Water Framework Directive (WFD), fish serves as a crucial indicator of river ecological status (Ullah and Zorriehzahra 2015). Their diverse sizes, ages, trophic levels, and sensitivity to various toxicants make them excellent indicators of water contamination (Wester et al., 2002). Fish adapt their metabolic functions in response to environmental changes, which makes them valuable in toxicological research. Monitoring sentinel fish species is a widely accepted method for assessing toxicant accumulation and its impact on human health (Wester et al., 2002). Fish, with their developed osmoregulatory, endocrine, nervous, and immune systems, are preferred to invertebrates in toxicological studies. Fish can absorb toxicants through both waterborne and dietary exposure, allowing the evaluation of contaminant transfer through the food chain. Key tissues for ecological, toxicological, and pathological studies in teleost fish include the gills, liver, and kidney because of their high metabolic activity and tendency to accumulate toxicants (Wester et al., 2002).

Cashewnut, Anacardium occidentale is one of the important plantation crops grown for its delicious kernel. It is mostly grown in coastal belts of South-West and South-East India including the states like Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal and also in the non-traditional areas including inlands of central India and parts of Northeastern regions. It is an important cash crop and has attained the status of export-oriented commodity. In India alone around 200 insect pests have been reported on cashew causing damage during different stages of crop growth. Stem and root borer and Tea mosquito bugs, blossom webber and leafminer pests of economic importance, the details of which is given hereunder:

Stem and root borer, Plocaederus ferrugineus L. and P. obesus Gahan (Cerambycidae: Coleoptera)

It is a very serious pest of cashew in both east and west coasts of India. It is also recorded on sapota, drumstick and citrus trees. Among the two species, P. ferrugineus is the commonly occurring species. Eggs are pale white, ovoid and smooth measuring about 4.5 x 2.0mm. The grubs are stout, fleshy ivory yellow with dark brown head and wrinkled body without legs, and measures 75mm in length, when full grown. The adult of P. ferrugineus is a medium sized (2540mm) dark brown longicorn beetle

Mass spectrometry (MS) is a  useful  technique which produces spectra of the masses of the atoms or molecules in a sample.  The spectra are used to determine the elemental or isotopic   details  of a sample. The masses of particles and of molecules, are used to elucidate the chemical structures of molecules, such as peptides and other chemical compounds. Mass spectrometry works by ionizing chemical compounds to generate charged molecules and measuring their mass-to-charge ratios.

A sample, which may be solid, liquid, or gas, is ionized, by bombarding with electrons. This may cause some of the sample’s molecules to break into charged fragments. These ions are then separated according to their mass-to-charge ratio, typically by accelerating them and subjecting them to an electric or magnetic field. Ions of the same mass-to-charge ratio will undergo the same amount of deflection. The ions are detected by a mechanism capable of detecting charged particles, such as an electron multiplier. Results are displayed as spectra of the relative abundance of detected ions as a function of the mass-to-charge ratio. The atoms or molecules in the sample can be identified by correlating known masses to the identified masses or through a characteristic fragmentation pattern.

Introduction

North East India constitutes the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim which reflects ecological and cultural contrasts between the hills and the plains. It is one of the most biodiversity regions in the world, with more than a hundred and fifty tribes forming a melting pot of variegated cultural mosaic of people and races constitute a vital component in this region (Dutta and Dutta, 2005).
 
More than 70% people of the region are engaged in agriculture while rice is the staple food crop (Bhattacharjee and Ray, 2010). The farmers from different ethnic diversity of the region have developed their own systems of cultivation of various crops (Islam et al. 2004). These indigenous traditional knowledge systems are quite endemic to this region (Deka et al. 2006).

Nutrient requirements of the animals in terms of protein, energy, minerals and vitamins are the basis for scientific feeding. The total requirement of an animal includes two components (i) maintenance (ii) production. While maintenance requirement varies with body size of the animal, the requirement for production depends upon its physiological state and production levels.

Such recommendations are based on the results of a large number of feeding experiments, conducted throughout the world. Feeding standards developed by Nation Research Council (NRC) of USA and Agricultural Research Council (ARC) of UK, for livestock and poultry are considered to be the best general guides for computation of ration. However, limited investigations carried out in this country suggest that adoption of foreign standards always leaves a fair margin of safety so far as the feeding of Indian species are concerned. This owes mainly due to differences in size, breed, nutritional values of feeding stuffs and other practices in the agro-climatic conditions of this tropical country. Some efforts have been made by India scientists in this area.

As discussed in previous chapters, the damage to the plants due to frost occurs as a result of frost-induced freezing and not merely because of the low temperature exposure. The cells of sensitive plant species get injured when the temperature drops below a critical level. When the damage caused is associated with sub-zero temperature, it is called freezing injury. And, when it is caused due to a temperature above 00 C, it is called chilling injury.

Aim: To perform open and short circuit test on a single-phase transformer, to obtain equivalent circuit parameters.

Open circuit test

The core loss or iron loss i.e. the no-load loss in a transformer is determined by performing the no-load test at normal sine wave impressed voltage. Through the iron loss in a transformer is not governed by the supply being connected to primary or secondary side but when measuring this no-load loss.

It is usually more convenient and safer to supply the voltage to the low voltage side. This makes the test apparatus cheaper and becomes safer for the low testing personal. To determine the shunt branch parameter of the equivalent circuit, the primary side (L.V.) is connected to a normal supply voltage and rated frequency and secondary side (H.V.) is left open with care so that there is no possibility of coming in contact with any part of (H.V.) terminals. The wattmeter connected in the primary (L.V.), will then read the total hysteresis.

Introduction

Introduction Woman dies as a result of the complications arising due to pregnancy such as sepsis, hemorrhage or obstructed labour. The possible reasons for high mortality and morbidity are the inadequacy of health services and ignorance regarding the need of obtaining medical care by pregnant or lactating women. ICDS has an important role to fill in this gap of knowledge and non-availing attitude of women. Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) is a prominent national program that provides package of services of children and women. Role of Anganwadi worker in ICDS scheme has to provide information to beneficiary mothers regarding reproductive health, balanced diet, pre and post maternal services , neo-natal care and family planning etc .Group discussions are often organized to impart education regarding health, breast feeding and immunization etc at AWCs. AWWs also provide information to beneficiary mothers regarding health camp, doctor’s visit and immunization day by visiting the beneficiaries at home as well as at AWCs. Present research has focused on pre-maternal services. An assessment in the present study of the frequency of availing pre maternal services and the coverage of beneficiaries can give important information regarding actual benefits to the vulnerable groups.

The aromatic plants are the valuable source for flavours, fragrances and other pharmaceutical products. The aromatic plants possess odoriferous and volatile substances, which occur in the form of essential oils, gum exudate, balsam and oleo-resin. The chemical nature of these aromatic substances may be due to a variety of complex chemical compounds. Natural essential oils comprising a complex mixture of aroma chemicals, which are difficult to reconstitute in the chemical industry, fetch very high prices. India has a long perfumery tradition that dates back to over 5,000 years in Indus Valley Civilization. In the excavation of Harrappa and Mohanjodaro, a water distillation still and receiver have been recorded, whose shape resemble to the deg and bhabka currently used by attaries (traditional perfumers) of Kannauj in India (Gupta and Chadha, 1995).
Aromatic plants are very important part of agriculture and have been grown in India for their fragrance and therapeutic use from ages. Presently, several aromatic plants are in use for medication have come from our ancestors, inhabiting in different countries. The recent advances made in chemical and instrumentation technology led to the identification and isolation of principal chemical compounds diversely used in medicines, food, cosmetics, toiletries, bouquets, aerosols, paints, varnishes, insecticides etc (Arya et al., 2021). However, the perfumery and allied industries consume much larger amount of the natural fragrant material. Many of the aromatic plants are valued for naturally occurring essential oils and the bulk of the produce finds use in perfumery and the food flavouring industries.

The increasing global emphasis on sustainability and the circular economy has brought renewed focus to the valorization of agri-biomass and organic waste—the process of converting low-value, often discarded residues into highvalue products. Agricultural biomass, including crop residues such as straw, husks, and stalks, along with organic waste like food scraps, animal manure, and agro-industrial by-products, is both abundant and underutilized, particularly in developing regions. Traditionally, these materials have been disposed of through open burning, landfilling, or natural decomposition, all of which release significant quantities of greenhouse gases and contribute to environmental degradation. However, recent innovations in green technology and material science are transforming these waste streams into valuable resources. Through processes such as pyrolysis, fermentation, and biochemical conversion, agri-biomass and organic waste can now be converted into biochar, bio-based chemicals, and sustainable biomaterials. These products not only mitigate environmental harm but also create new economic opportunities across agriculture, industry, and the renewable energy sector. By leveraging these advancements, societies can significantly reduce waste, lower emissions, and accelerate the transition to a more sustainable and circular bioeconomy.

INTRODUCTION

Traditional knowledge is the knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities around the world. Developed from experience gained over centuries and adapted to the local culture and environment, it is transmitted orally from generation to generation. It tends to be collectively owned and takes the form of stories, songs, folklore, proverbs, cultural values, beliefs, rituals, community laws, local language. Sometimes it is referred to as an oral tradition for it is practiced, sung, danced, painted, carved, chanted and performed down through millennia. Traditional knowledge is mainly of a practical nature, particularly in such fields as fisheries, health, horticulture, forestry and environmental management in general. Appreciation of the value of traditional knowledge is growing. This knowledge is valuable not only to those who depend on it in their daily lives, but to modern industry and farming as well. Many widely used products, such as plant-based medicines, health products and cosmetics, are derived from traditional knowledge. Other such valuable products include agricultural and non-wood forest products as well as handicraft. Traditional knowledge can make a significant contribution to sustainable development.

Abstract

The participation level of farm women in economic activities of self-help groups to know the socio-economic factors contributing to their participation in such groups and the constraints faced by them was studied during 2004-05 at Kadur taluk of Chikkamagalore district of Karnataka. Apart from these findings on the factors affecting their involvement in SHGs and the problems faced by them, the study also revealed that majority of farm women had medium level of family income, mass media participation and, low level of communication status.

1.    Yellow vein mosaic
        
2.    Cercospora leaf spot
        
3.    Fusarium wilt
        
4.    Powdery mildew

INTRODUCTION

Plant pathogens induce diverse reactions in the body of their hosts. This result in creation of abnormalities which become visible on the plants. A visible or otherwise detectable expression of abnormal physiology, development, or behaviour in a plant resulting from disease is called symptoms. Normally, a distinction is made between symptoms and signs A symptom of disease is expressed as a reaction of the host to a causal agent, where as, a sign is evidence of disease other than that expressed by the host. Signs are usually the structures of the pathogen.A disease is first noticed by the presence of symptoms and /or signs, and recognition of specific type of symptoms or sign aid in the eventual diagnosis of the disease.

Many Bacillus species are capable of producing a wide variety of secondary metabolites that are diverse in structure and function. The production of metabolites with antimicrobial activity is one determinant of their ability to control plant diseases. The activity is determined using PCR. PCR consists of an exponential amplification of a DNA fragment, and its principle is based on the mechanism of DNA replication in vivo. dsDNA is denatured to ssDNA, duplicated, and this process is repeated along the reaction according to the following formula