eChapters

INTRODUCTION

Wheeler bearers commonly referred to as ‘Rotifers ‘are significantly they are often taken as reliable indicators of mesotrophic characteristics in the lake ecosystems (Gannon and Stemberger, 1978). Because of their wide tolerances to varied dissolved oxygen levels and temperature distributions, they are even found to inhabit the deeper waters of aquatic ecosystems (Esparcia et al., 1989). They belong to the Kingdom Animalia, Subkingdom Eumetazoa, Phylum Rotifera (Cuvier, 1798) having three classes Monogononta, Digononta and Seisonidea (Pennak 1953). In other words these wheel animalcules named, because of the presence of their corona, which is composed of several ciliated tufts around their mouth region. This ciliated tuft helps in locomotion and resembles a wheel. These create a current that sweeps food into the mouth, where it is chewed up by a characteristic pharynx (called the mastax) containing a tiny, calcified, jaw-like structure called the trophi. The cilia functions to pull the animal, when unattached, through the water. Most free-living forms have pair of posterior toes to anchor themselves while feeding. Rotifers are bilaterally symmetrical found in various shapes. There is a well-developed cuticle, thick and rigid, providing a box-like shape, or flexible, giving the animal a worm like shape; such rotifers are respectively called loricate and illoricate.

Habitats of Rotifers are relatively easy to find. Many live in ponds, moist soil, or any stagnant water. Rotifers can be free swimming or sessile. Rotifers are mostly omnivorous and some have been observed to be cannibalistic. They normally eat algae or decomposing organic material. As they are a major food source for Cladoceran , Copepodans , juvenile fishes (fry) and fishes, therefore , an important food link of water ecosystem (Arora and Mehra 2003). Presence of abundant Rotifers in freshwaters determines them to be one of the main groups of zooplankton in limnological studies. They are permanently and obligatorily connected to aquatic habitats in all active stages and only their resting stages are drought-resistant (Chopra et al 2012). Various researchers have conducted pioneer study on the diversity and habitat of rotifers such as Anderson 1889; Sharma 1987; Sharma 1998a; Gilbert and Schreiber 1998; Arora and Mehra 2003; George et al. 2011; Tyor and Chawala 2012. However such studies on Madhuganga dam water has not been conducted, hence for assessment of Madhuganga Lentic water has been conducted for the seasonal variation in diversity and density of rotifers.

Abstract
    
The amount of data being collected across a wide variety of fields today far exceeds our ability to reduce and analyze without the use of automated analysis techniques. In addition, the whole data may not be of user interest and imperfect. Therefore, it is very challenging to organize this data in formal system, which provides outputs in more relevant, useful, and structured manner. There are many techniques available to retrieve knowledge from this voluminous data. This paper discusses different rough computing based information retrieval techniques to obtain meaningful knowledge from large amount of datasets. We also discuss a real life example to show the viability of proposed research.

Seen in mature chickens. Condition results from myocardial degeneration which causes bilateral ventricular hypertrophy and dilation. Etiology is not known.

Round heart disease in turkey causes mortality in 1-4 weeks of age. Lesions are severe cardiomyopathy, ascites, hydropericardium and generalized congestion of tissues. No aetiology is known.

Routine maintenance forms the foundation of effective and sustainable aquarium care. It encompasses a range of scheduled activities designed to maintain cleanliness, chemical stability, and a healthy environment for aquatic life. Whether managing a small home tank or a large public display, failure to perform regular upkeep can cause water quality to deteriorate quickly, potentially leading to stress,
illness, or even the death of fish and plants.
Common maintenance routines include partial water changes—typically 10–30% on a weekly or biweekly basis—along with cleaning the substrate and tank decorations to remove waste and leftover food. Filters should be regularly inspected and cleaned to maintain proper flow and filtration. Additionally, both the inner and outer surfaces of the glass should be cleaned to eliminate algae and ensure clear viewing.
Water testing is another critical aspect of maintenance. Key parameters like ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, pH, temperature, and oxygen levels should be routinely checked using appropriate test kits. Identifying imbalances early helps prevent serious water quality issues.
Health monitoring of fish and plants is also important. Watching for changes in behavior, eating habits, color, or signs of distress enables early diagnosis and treatment. For planted tanks, this might include trimming overgrowth, replanting, or adding fertilizers as needed.
Sticking to a consistent maintenance schedule not only keeps the tank clean but also extends the life of your aquarium’s inhabitants and equipment. It supports a stable and thriving aquatic environment where natural biological cycles can operate effectively.

INTRODUCTION TO ROUTINE MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES FOR AGRICULTURAL DRONES
Regular maintenance of agricultural drones is crucial for their best performance and durability, as these sophisticated devices are integral to contemporary agriculture. Agricultural drones endure severe climatic conditions, such as dust, wetness, and fluctuating temperatures, which might impact their performance. Routine maintenance activities, including cleaning, inspecting, calibrating sensors, and assessing component wear, mitigate expensive downtime and guarantee that drones consistently provide accurate data for applications such as crop monitoring, irrigation management, and pest control. By following a regular maintenance schedule, farmers may optimize the dependability and effectiveness of their drone technology, so improving production and reducing the likelihood of malfunctions during essential activities.
UAV systems (drones) necessitate routine maintenance inspections to verify optimal functionality. They are susceptible to deterioration from prolonged usage, particularly when utilized within a bigger fleet.
This checklist may be utilized as frequently as necessary for routine maintenance inspections; however, it is more efficacious to conduct maintenance on a per-flight basis rather than at fixed intervals. Scheduling will more precisely indicate the likelihood of the drone requiring maintenance.
You likely already possess established procedures for determining when and how to conduct maintenance. Verify all items on this list to confirm their operational status and facilitate any required repairs or replacements prior to the next flight.

Routine paraffin wax embedding technique can be conveniently discussed under the following five headings:
Stages of tissue processing
1. Fixation: Stabilizes and hardens tissue with minimal distortions of cells
2. Dehydration: Removal of water and fixative from the tissue.
3. Clearing: Removal of dehydrating solutions, making the tissue components receptive to the infiltration medium.
4. Infiltrating: Permeating the tissue with a support medium.
5. Embedding: Orienting the tissue sample in a support medium and allowing it to solidify.
Fixation-A
It is essential that tissues be fixed as soon as possible after death or removal from the body, and for this reason screw-capped specimen jars containing appropriate fixatives should be permanently kept wherever tissues for histological examination are taken regularly, for example in the operating theatre, the post- mortem room, or the animal house. The amount of fluid in the jars should be 15-20 times the bulk of the tissue to be fixed. Care should be taken to ensure early despatch of the specimens to the histology laboratory in order to avoid over-fixation in intolerant fixatives.
Tissues selected for sectioning should be sufficiently thin to be adequately fixed throughout in a reasonable time. The overall bulk of the tissue determines the volume of fixative required; the thickness will determine the speed of fixation.

INTRODUCTION

Rubber cultivation in regions extending from 10°N to 10°S latitude is known as the traditional region and the areas other than its natural climatic origin is termed as the non-traditional region. Northeast India comprises majority of the non-traditional areas in India with major climatic constraints like high seasonal rainfall, excessive precipitation and to some extent dry conditions. These areas extending from 22 to 29^°N latitude, holds promise in extending rubber cultivation because of its exceptional climatic make-up and abundant amount of annual precipitation (2000 mm) distributed over a fair period of time.

This perennial crop generally yields latex rubber at the 7th year after planting (with an economic life span of 20 years), although the period (immaturity period) it requires, is higher in the non-traditional region (Rubber Growers Companion, 2006). This immaturity period has also been shown to reduce with water availability in sub-humid climates (Vijayakumar et al. , 1998). Harvest of this crop is by tapping. Tapping is a process of controlled wounding during which thin shavings of bark are removed, thus opening the latex vessels which exude latex. Dry rubber yield is obtained after the latex is coagulated and rolled into sheets (about 500gm) which is then smoked and dried.

5.1. Origin and distribution

• Indigenous tree of tropical rainforest of Amazon basin of Brazil and introduced in Asia in 1876

• Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Africa are the main rubber producing countries.

5.2. Economic importance

• Natural rubber is available from Manihot glaziovii (Cera rubber), Ficus elastica (India rubber), Castiolla elastica (Panama rubber), Parthenium argenatum (Guayul), Taraxacum koksaghyz and Hevea brasiliensis (Para rubber).

• Hevea brasiliensis is the most important commercial source of natural rubber.

• After proper chemical treatment, rubber wood provides enough strength and durability of any semi-hard wood available in India

• U sed for the manufacture of useful articles like door and window components, furniture, wall paneling, interior decoration, tool handles etc.

Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) is a tropical tree crop of industrial importance which is mainly cultivated for its latex. It is also known as ‘Para Rubber’ tree, a commercial source of natural rubber. Rubber latex is a milky white liquid, a suspension of rubber particles (cis-1,4–polyisoprene) known for its elastic properties produced in specialized cells called laticifers which have to be coagulated to obtain the rubber. Rubber was introduced by the British in India for commercial cultivation and became an established industry. The rubber industry is divided into two sectors: tyre and non-tyre of which automotive tyre sector is the single largest sector of rubber consumption.

Botanical Name: Hevea brasiliensis
Family: Euphorbiacace
Origin: Brazil
Chromosome No.: 36
Useful Part: Latex 
Cera Rubber: Manihot glaziovii
Para Rubber: Hevea brasiliensis
Indian Rubber: Ficus elastic
Panama Rubber: Castiolla elastic
Guayul Rubber: Parthenium argentatum

The natural habitat of rubber (Heavea brasiliensis) is rain forests of the Amazon basin, situated within 5° North and South at altitudes below 200m. The climate of this region is equatorial monsoon type characterized by mean
monthly temperature by 25 to 28°C, well distributed rainfall and no marked dry weather. Though it is originated in the Amazon basin, it is now predominantly grown in the tropics where an equatorial monsoon type climate prevails. Regions between 8°N and 10°S which includes Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, southern part of Sri Lank  and some other Islands, are better suited to rubber cultivation. The production of natural rubber in the country was 8.65 lakh MT in 2008–09, registering a 4.74 per cent growth compared to the previous year. India is the fourth largest producer of natural rubber with a share of eight per cent in the World after Thailand, Indonesia and Malaysia and the fourth largest consumer of natural rubber after China, USA and Japan. Among the rubber growing countries in the World, India occupies a pride place with the top most position in productivity (Table 9.1). The productivity of natural rubber (NR) in India in 2009–10 was 1784 kg/ha. In 1950–51, it was 284 kg/ha. The growth achieved in terms of the productivity of natural rubber is 628 per cent. This achievement

Natural rubber, cis-l,4 polyisoprene, produced in the milky cytoplasm (latex) of specialized cells called laticifers in certain plants is one of most important biological macromolecules, which is used as an industrial raw material for the manufacture of a variety of products. Natural rubber is found in the latex of over 2000 species of plants belonging to 311 genera under 79 families. However, Hevea brasiliensis, also known as Para rubber tree after the Brazilian port of Para, is the only commercial source of natural rubber mainly because of its abundance in latex, quality and convenience of harvesting. Hevea was first used as a source of rubber by the French.

A family of about 611 genera and 13,150 species, Rubiaceae are chiefly distributed in tropics, but some are distributed in temperate or even arctic regions. About 75 genera and 275 species have been reported from India, chiefly in tropical and sub-tropical eastern Himalayas. Some of the largely represented genera with their approximately reported species (Hickey and King, 1988) include Psychotria (700), Galium (400), Ixora (400), Gardenia (250), Mussaenda (200), Asperula (200), Cephaelis (180), Rondeletia (120), Coprosoma (90), Guettarda (80), Rubia (60), Coffea (40) and Cinchona (40). Two most important plants of the family are Coffea arabica (coffee-yielding plant) and species of Cinchona (quinine-yielding plant).
Economic Importance of Selected Genera and Species
Some of the common ornamental plants grown in gardens and roadsides include Anthocephalus cadamba (Kadam), Cephalanthus occidentalis, Galium verum (Ladies Bedstraw), Gardenia jasminoides (Jasmine), Hamelia patens, Hamiltonia suaveolens (Padera), Ixora arborea, I. coccinia, Morinda tinctoria, M. frondosa, M. luteola, Pentas lanceolatea and Rondeletia.

The process of civilization and materialist life style has forced man to make laws which govern or rule the conduct of the people of society or community. In the earlier days the relation of human and animal was interdependent and mutual. Now a days man has become self-centered and ignorant of his surroundings. This has led to cruelty on the animals in many circumstances. Therefore, in pursuit of prevention of the cruelty to animals following laws, regulations have made by the government.

Principle

Polyethylene glycol (PEG) is a high molecular weight compound which is inert to rumen fermentation. The concentration in the rumen liquor declines with the passage of digesta from rumen to lower G.I. tract and is proportional to time. Protein free filtrate of rumen liquor gives turbidity in the presence of trichloro acetic acid and barium chloride which is a measure of PEG concentration at different post feeding hours.

Ruminants have evolved to consume and subsist on roughage - grasses and shrubs built predominantly of cellulose.The rumen is a fermentation vat par excellance, providing an anaerobic environment, constant temperature and pH, and good mixing. Well-masticated substrates are delivered through the esophagus on a regular schedule, and fermentation products are either absorbed in the rumen itself or flow out for further digestion and absorption downstream. Rumen gases, particularly methane, are increasingly in the news because of their contribution to greenhouse gas and climate change.

The ruminant stomach is composed of four parts; the rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum. These compartments gives the cow and other ruminants a decided advantage in digesting and utilizing those parts of the plants and other compounds which are practically useless to animals with simple stomach. Substances such as cellulose, a major constituent of plant tissues and urea, a non protein nitrogen compound, are of limited use of non ruminants. However ruminants through fermenting and synthesizing action of microorganisms in their complex stomach, can efficiently utilize these substances for productive purposes. The dairy cow converts this feed into milk and meat, two highly nutritious and palatable food for humans. This ability to make use of feed which otherwise would go waste because it is not directly consumable for humans is one of the most compelling justifications for the existence of cattle and buffaloes, in a world which must make use of all possible food resources.

Introduction

In ruminants,nutritional studies are very complicated unlike non ruminants where it is quite simple. In non-ruminants, analysis of feed taken and faeces voided by the animal gives overall picture of digestion and nutrient availability to the animal. In ruminants, since it has a complex microbial digestive system (rumen) within the animal digestive system, the analysis of the feed taken and faeces voided will not express the whole processes in the GI tract of the animal. To have complete picture, it is necessary to study at the site of microbial digestion (rumen). For such study, samples from the rumen have to be drawn and analyzed for metabolities, microbial enzymes etc.

A. Multiple choices (you have to choose most appropriate answer among 4 alternatives)

1.    Which of the following bacteria in rumen is not cellulolytic

a. Bacteroides succinogenes

b. Ruminococcus flavefaciens

c. Ruminococcus albus

d. Succinivibrio dextrinosolvens

2.    Which of the following bacteria does not interact with anaerobic fungi

a. R. albus

b. R. flavifaciens

c. Butrivibrio fibrisolvens

d. Fibrobacter succinogenes

Ruminitis is an inflammatory condition affecting the rumen wall, primarily caused by disruptions in the rumen’s microbial environment and metabolic processes. It is often linked to excessive consumption of rapidly fermentable carbohydrates, leading to rumen acidosis and subsequent damage to the ruminal epithelium. If untreated, ruminitis can progress to severe systemic complications such as liver abscesses and endotoxemia, significantly impacting animal health, productivity, and profitability in livestock systems. Nutritional management plays a central role in both preventing and treating ruminitis.
Causes
1. High-starch diets: Diets rich in grains and low in fibre promote rapid fermentation, leading to an overproduction of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) m and lactic acid, lowering rumen pH (rumen acidosis).
2. Low-fibre diets: Insufficient fibre intake reduces chewing and saliva production, which are essential for buffering rumen acidity.
3. Inconsistent feeding practices: Irregular feeding schedules or abrupt dietary changes disrupt microbial populations in the rumen.
4. Other factors: Overfeeding of easily fermentable feeds (e.g., silage or molasses), Stress or illness reducing feed intake and altering rumen function.

3.1 Runoff

Runoff is one of the important parameter of hydrologic cycle. It is defined as that portion of precipitation which is not absorbed by the deep soil strata but finds its way into the stream after meeting the demands of evapotranspiration, interception, infiltration, surface storage, and surface as well as channel detention. It includes surface runoff received into the channels after precipitation occurs, delayed runoff that enters the stream after passing through the land surface, and other delayed runoff from the temporarily detained pits, depressions, swamps or detained as snow fall. It is thus the flow collected from the drainage basin and appearing at the outlet of the basin. The runoff process is demonstrated in Fig. 3.1 as flow chart. Details of the runoff process are discussed as below.