eChapters

Sagittaria sagittifolia L. (Alismataceae):Eng.- Old World Arrow Head; Hindi- Chotakut; Kash.- Kyou [W]. Perennial herb inhabiting shallow water ponds, swampy rice fields. Leaves arrow shaped. Flowers have small sepals and three white petals, numerous purple stamens.Tubers edible (Figs. S 1, 2).

Today it has been understood that yeasts have great potentials as novel probiotics (Nayak, 2011). They have been found to be safe for human consumption in traditional fermented foods (Jakobsen and Narvhus 1996). Yeasts have a great physiological importance inside the gastrointestinal (GI) tract (Czerucka et al., 2007; Gatesoupe, 2007). Jespersen (2003) has mentioned the role of consuming fermented foods and the health benefits attributed with it.Yeasts are known for prevention of table olive (Arroyo lopez et al., 2012). Bonatsau et al. (2015) have shown multi-functional property of yeast as starters.

INTRODUCTION

Scientists have known that certain animals can regenerate missing parts of their bodies. But we can not replace a missing leg or a finger; our bodies are constantly regenerating blood, skin and other tissues. The identity of the powerful cells that allow us to regenerate some tissues was first revealed when experiments with bone marrow in the 1950’s established the existence of stem cells in our bodies and led to the development of bone marrow transplantation, a therapy now widely used in medicine. Stem cell therapies are one of the most promising areas of medicine, and many such therapies are now in development by industrial and academic groups. The first successful allogenic stem cell graft in humans using donor bone marrow was undertaken in the USA in 1968 and bone marrow transplantation continues to provide the best example of the clinical use of adult stem cells. Currently, cell therapies are regulated under the US Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA’s) Good Tissue Practices Final Rule, which uses a tiered system based on the level of risk associated with the cell product. Scientists were able to extract embryonic stem cells from mice in the 1980s, but it wasn’t until 1998 that a team of scientists from the University of Wisconsin–Madison became the first group to isolate human embryonic stem cells and keep them.

Introduction

Several tropical indigenous fruits have still remained underexploited due to the lack of awareness of their potential, market demand and low and erratic bearing in many cases. Though wild and domesticated diversity is composed of nearly 3000 tropical fruit species, only a few are cultivated on large scale (Vietmeyer, 1990;Pareek et al., 1998). These species (approximately 600 tropical and subtropical) are better known in their areas of diversity and have not yet been utilized to their full potential inspite of their high economic value. There exists a very rich diversity of fruits across the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world, with more than 500 species of fruits estimated to be found in Southeast Asia alone. The South and Southeast Asia represents above 300 species of native minor fruits (Arora, 1995). These species are being used by local people as minor fruits as well as for medicinal purposes as described in the Indian system of medicine. If properly harnessed, this diversity has great potential as a source of food besides meeting multipurpose needs of the local communities (Pareek et al., 1998).

For animal rearing it is pertinent to know the technique of keeping and preserving the feed required for the livestock. Apart from the rich pasturage, one may have the longevity of their feeds is immense concern for many. Animal feeds are an amalgam of diverse ingredients, including vegetable oil, sunflower oil. There are also animal fats, like – lard, tallow etcetera, which are included in the fodder. These elements give fodder the targeted input to animal husbandry. The prime factor that occurs and becomes a challenge for many livestock rearing, the cost for their feeds, which would provide quality and quantity in their output. Once the feed is rightly chosen for the animal, that one is rearing, the next challenge arises. Here is somehow animal feeds can be preserved safely, thereby increasing the longevity of the feeds - * Stay safe from the Sun; * Metal cans; * Storage bunkers; * Sliding metal roof bunkers;
* Commodity sheds; * Plastic containers or drums; * Re – usable freezer; * Wood bins.
Important dots
• All feed and ingredients have to be stored in a cool place [ideally below 77 0 F or (77 0F –32) X 5/9 = 25 0C), although this is not possible at outside locations under summer situations].
• Feed has to be kept dry to prevent fungal or bacterial growth.
• Prevention of entry for rodents or insects is essential.
• Stable form of vitamins is important to use.
• Anti – oxidants are important for preserving fats, oils in ingredients and feed.
• Expiry dates are important on the containers, for all feed materials for their shelf – life (for ground grains = 1 month after milling)
• For fats and oils: Opened container: 1 month; un – opened or stabilized: 1 - year post mixing.

Safe harbour : Protection from the rough seas of regulation. Laws and regulations often include a safe harbour clause that sets out the circumstances in which otherwise regulated firms or individuals can do something without regulatory oversight or interference.

Sample : A selected subset of a population. A sample may be random or non-random and it may be representative or non-representative.

Satisficing : Settling for what is good enough, rather than the best that is possible. This may occur in any situation in which decision makers are trying to pursue more than one goal at a time. Classical economics and neo-classical economics assume that individuals, firms and governments try to achieve the optimum, best possible outcome from their decisions. Satisficing assumes they decide for each goal a level of achievement that would be good enough and try to find a way to achieve all of these sub-optimal goals at once. This approach to decision making is commonplace in behavioural economics. It can be regarded as a realist’s theory of how decisions are taken.

Savings : Any income that is not spent. Ultimately, savings are the source of investment in an economy, although domestic savings may be supplemented by capital from foreign savers or themselves be invested abroad. In an economic sense, savings include purchases of shares or other financial securities. However, many official measures of a country’s savings ratio—total savings expressed as a percentage of total income—leave out such financial transactions. At times when the demand for financial securities is unusually high, this can give a misleading impression of how much saving is taking place. How much individuals save varies significantly among different age groups (see life-cycle hypothesis) and nationalities. Everywhere, people of all ages save more as their income rises. The supply of savings rises when interest rates rise; a rise in interest rates causes demand for funds to invest to fall; a rise in demand for investment funds may cause interest rates, and thus the cost of capital, to rise. The level of savings is also influenced by changes in wealth (see wealth effect) and by taxation policies.

Packaging is an essential tool to make products stand out from the competition. Beyond the shelf appeal, packaging also provides protection to the contents from physical, chemical and microbiological hazards. However, a lesser known fact is that the same packaging material could also be a source of chemical contaminants, and hence, may impact food safety as well as food quality. Among the different components of packaging material, packaging inks play a critical role as they might hamper product and consumer safety.

Each packaging ink is a mixture of different chemicals and some of these chemicals might be harmful with the potential to migrate to the foodstuff. In terms of risk, the chemicals could be toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, repro-toxic and even endocrine disruptors. The chemical contaminants from the packaging inks can get transferred to the foodstuff by a process called migration.

Over the last two decades, a number of scientific papers have been published, revealing the migration potential of substances from the printed matter. However, the first big scandal that brought the subject alive was about the f indings of isopropyl thioxanthone (ITX, a low molecular photo initiator used in UV inks) in baby milk and other liquid foodstuffs all over Europe, resulting in a product recall in the year 2005. The food scandal alerted the packaging chain about the linkage between packaging inks and food safety. Consequently, the authorities issued strict regulations for the application of printing inks as well as general food control measures.

Borer pests cause significant yield losses and are one of the most serious production constraints in tropical vegetable production. For instance, eggplant fruit and shoot borer (EFSB), Leucinodes orbonalis Guenée (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) reduces yield as much as 70% (Dhandapani et al., 2003). Tomato fruit borer, Helicoverpa armigera Hubner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) causes about 5 to 55% loss in almost all the tomato producing areas in the world (Kashyap and Batra, 1987). Up to 80% yield losses have been reported in various vegetable and grain legumes due to legume pod borer (LPB), Maruca vitrata F. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) damage (Singh et al., 1990; Sharma, 1998; Gressel et al., 2004; Hammig et al., 2008; Zahid et al., 2008). Due to higher yield losses, growers tend to apply extremely high quantities of chemical pesticides to control borer pests on vegetable crops. Because the borer larvae are exposed on external plant parts only for a brief time after hatching, the window for effective pesticide application is very brief; vegetable farmers spray throughout the growing season, but without satisfactory results. A survey of pesticide use in Bangladesh indicated that farmers spray up to 180 times with chemical insecticides during a year to protect their eggplant crop against EFSB (SUSVEGAsia, 2007). Pesticide application often exceeded 50 sprays per tomato crop season in south India (Nagaraju et al., 2002). In Bangladesh, country bean (Lablab purpureus) is being sprayed at weekly or biweekly intervals—sometimes every day—to control LPB (Hoque et al., 2001). On average, farmers used 10-24 kg/ha of pesticides in cabbage and cauliflower in India to manage the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) and other pests (Weinberger and Srinivasan, 2009).

1. Introduction

Storage is an important part of any food grain processing chain. Storage of raw and processed food grain has been used by humans since time immemorial as a prerequisite for insuring food security due to off time availability, and for holding seed grain for long periods (Pande and Mishra, 2012). After harvesting grains may be required to be stored for long periods before these are marketed or used as food or seed. The grain storage is mainly carried out for three purposes viz (i) to retain a supply of food (ii) to service a trading system and (iii) to retain seed for planting the following season (Hall, 1980). Storage is, therefore, carried out by the producer, trader, processor, and the exporter and at all these levels the methods adopted affect the quality of food stuffs. The length of time grains can be safely stored will depend on the condition it was harvested and the type of storage facility being utilized. Grain storage and handling is a major concern for food grain growers and processers worldwide (Mohan et al., 2011; Pande and Mishra, 2012). Depending upon the condition and uses food grains may be stored in different storage structures using traditional or modern storage methods. Different storage structures are used by farmers with the traditional names like Gumma, Oliya and Jute bag. Caswell (1973) recorded 50 to 60% of insect damage on food grain after six months of traditional storage. A typical range of storage methods encountered in tropics and subtropics region is given in Table 1.

14.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated from Africa and distributed throughout warmer regions of world

• Naturally grown in hilly areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh

14.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Root

• Roots of safed musli contains 2-15% saponin having medicinal property of enhancing vitality and immunity to human beings.

• Also helps in correcting gynecological disorders.

• Dried tubers - Used as curative for pre-natal and post-natal illness, arthritis, restorative and a health tonic

• Known as divya aushadhi and ayurvedic anori.

INTRODUCTION

Libraries are social institutions bestowed with the responsibility of storing preserving the cultural heritage of accounting and making them available for use to the community. The inherent characteristics of artifacts, the storage conditions and the type; intensity and amount of the processes of monitoring the physical condition of the library’s materials and taking action to prevent future deterioration are critical issues. Preservation issues can be defined as those that relate to the longevity of materials, while conservation issues include handling and storage. Ironically, books published since the beginning of the 20^th century are more likely to decay than the older books. Other modern materials such as microfilm, photographs, videotapes, and films have unique preservation need.

Introduction

Food is an important contributor to human well being and is essential for sustaining life. From this point of view food is expected to contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, protein fat, vitamins and other essential minerals which support life. The food production initially started for individual sustenance which slowly developed in to a community requirement necessitating the involvement of man and machinery for various activities concerned with food. The progress from famine in many parts of the world to the level of self-sufficiency and the role of science and agriculture have been absolutely significant in many parts of the world. India is no exception and the green revolution during the post 1960s and the succeeding blue and white revolution ensured the self-sufficiency in India.

Of late food acts as a vehicle for inclusion of hazard in food meant for human consumption. According to Grunert (2005), factors responsible for the alarmingly higher rate of concern by public include significantly higher number of food scares in public domain, critical understanding of production and processing of certain food products sold in the market as well as the diversified food choices of the consumers in different parts of the world. Besides, the increased awareness of the consumers on food related health issues also have its share in the increased concern on food at large.

Presently food is considered as a commodity which crosses international border concurrent with the human movement and hence quality has become a major concern. The traditional food is getting replaced with value added products, particularly ready to cook, ready to eat, partially cooked products, etc. consequent to life style changes. In order to meet the demand of the trade, the conventional processing is getting replaced by community processing or industrial processing with increased number of players in the primary production, processing, transportation and other value chain activities prompting larger product control. In the process, consumers are exposed to a variety of products produced as business ventures in modern food production systems needing efficient quality control and quality assurance to tackle the issues of quality. The increased incidence of hazards in both raw materials and final products consequent to the absence or inappropriate production schedule calls for increased food safety concerns. Besides the shelf-life of the products, addition of chemicals during the production also add to the concern.

Introduction

As the world population continues to grow, the global market for food products is expanding, together with an increased emphasis on food safety. Consumers have become more discerning in the type of foods they buy and how these foods affect their health and well being. Food safety is generally defined as the assurance that the food will not cause any harm to the consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use ( To achieve food safety, a management system has been developed which aims on preventing problems before they occur, rather than trying to detect failures through end product testing. It also places more responsibility for ensuring food safety on food manufacturers, who have to develop control and traceability of their products from ‘farm to plate’. The system requires the identification of specific hazards throughout the entire process of food production, concentrates on the points in the process that are critical to the safety of the product, and highlights measures for their control (Henson and Caswell, 1999).

Introduction

Tropical tuber crops viz., cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), taro (Colocasia esculenta), yams (Dioscorea sp.), Elephant foot yam (Amorphophallus paeoniifolius), arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) etc., are the important sources of starch after cereals and are used as staple or supplementary food in many of the tropical and sub tropical countries. Being the crops with adaptability to wide range of soil, climate and environment of the tropics and sub tropics and requiring minimum agronomic input and care for growth, they can be very well fitted into the prevailing cropping systems. They are the most efficient converters of solar energy and have the ability to reserve energy in the form of carbohydrate in the bulky roots and hence tuber crops are also called as calorie density crops. Tuber crops, though branded as poor man’s crops in rural areas have considerable unrealized potential for processing into high end products for food, feed and industrial uses. They are generally consumed as vegetable after boiling it in water and eaten along with some spicy curry or by extracting starch or flour. Besides serving as an insurance crop during times of food scarcity, it can also function as an industrial raw material for a wide spectrum of products

Introduction

Baking is a traditional activity which has a long history, and according to some recent discovery, it is indicated to be dated back to as early as around 21,000 B.C. It is termed as a complex operation of prolonged heat transfer through radiation, convection, and conduction. Baking is considered to be one of the oldest methods of cooking, most commonly the bread baking but it is not only limited to the bread instead it provides a wide range of products such as cookies, pastry, pizzas, breakfast cereals, etc. Baking includes lots of raw materials such as flour, water, yeast, milk and milk derivatives, shortening, sugars, eggs and some minor ingredients such as malt products, cocoa products, dough improvers, inhibitors of microbiological spoilers, spices, etc. Food items which are rich in sugar and carbohydrates such as chocolates, candies are known as confections, and the art of making these products is termed as confectionary. Confectionery can be broadly classified into two major categories, namely sweet confectionary and baked confectionery. Conventionally cake was defined as the flour based sweet food, whereas bread was defined as the flou-based non-sweet food.

Baked confectionery, also known as flour confectionery includes products such as cakes, pastries, and similar baked goods, especially which are served in dessert. These delicacies hold history not much later to the bread baking. Earlier the baked confectionery especially cakes were only affordable by the rich and were prepared for special occasions such as festivity, celebrations, etc. but now a large number of flour confectioneries are being produced in the world which is delightfully acceptable and are much more in demand by a various group of people.

Wheat Production and Consumption

Wheat, rice, maize, barley, sorghum and the millets are the main crops that provide nutrition to people worldwide. The production of grains in different countries depends on the various factors such as water availability, soil conditions, temperature, cultural and economical are most critical factors. Nutritional needs of the developing countries are more dependent on cereal grains compared to the developed ones. Approximately 60% of the calorie requirements in the developing countries are met from cereals. The International Grains Council (IGC) forecasted for total grains production in 2017-18 to 2.079 billion tonnes. There is a need to have major research to increase their productivity, reduce storage losses, enhance efficiency of processing and to ensure food safety in the entire supply chain. Among them, wheat is one of the most important crop species and is a staple food for about 35% of the world population. Wheat is unique among the grains because of its protein type, which when mixed with the water by mechanical forces yields into viscoelastic dough due to the formation of gluten. This unique property of dough is capable of retaining the gases which are produced by yeast or baking powder resulting in the production of an array of leavened products such as bread, cookie and cake.

Wheat is also an important source of dietary proteins for humans but like other cereals, it is deficient in the essential amino acid lysine. Wheat crop is adaptable to the wide range of growth conditions compared to other major cereals and hence it is cultivated widely throughout the world. Wheat cereal is the major dominating staple in the North Africa, Central and West Asia, providing the 50% of the calorie requirement in the region. The world wheat production is 740 million tonnes, with China ranking first by producing 125 million tonnes of wheat annually. Other major wheat producing countries are India, USA, Russia Australia, France and Canada. The global per capita consumption of wheat is about 66 kg, which varies widely in different regions. In Algeria, Egypt, Israel and other Middle East as well as Eastern Europe the consumption of wheat flour is high (150 kg/year). The food uses of wheat in developing countries are more than 80%, while in developed countries it is less than 50%. The consumption of the wheat in developing countries is significantly increasing due to globalization and growing economies. After rice, wheat is a major cereal crop in India and contributes to more than 50% of the total calories. It is grown in the cooler regions of India during the period of November to April. In grain production, rice ranks first with the production of about 105 million tonnes per year. In India, total grain production is 136 million tonnes for the year 2016-17 as per the International Grains Council. India ranks second in the production of wheat in the world and produce about 95 million tonnes annually. The bread wheat (astevum) contributes to approximately 94% while durum wheat is 4% and dicoccum wheat accounts to 2%.

Introduction

Oils and fats are the major class of compounds in lipids. Oils and fats are essential nutrients in both human and animal diets and produced from plant, animal, marine and microbial sources. Dietary oils and fats are concentrated sources of metabolizable energy (9 kCal/gram) compared to protein or carbohydrates (4 kCal/g). According to the recommendations of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the maximum total fat intake for adults is 30 to 35% E (total energy calories). The minimum fat intake recommended is 15% E for most individuals and 20% E for women of reproductive age and for malnourished populations (FAO, 2010).The current dietary guidelines for optimal health and prevention of diet-related chronic diseases like diabetes, coronary heart disease (CHD), cancer and obesity emphasize the importance of both the quantity and quality of total fat in the diet. In addition to the caloric and nutritional value, oils and fats exhibit many functional properties in the diet. Oils and fats enhance the value of foods by releasing the flavours of other food components, provide texture, increase palatability of food, and impart the feeling of satiety after eating. Oils and fats provide essential fatty acids (omega 3 and 6) which are the building blocks for several metabolic pathways for the healthy life. Oils and fats are excellent carriers of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K, and the absorption of these vitamins is impaired at very low-fat intakes. Due to this reason, sseveral countries have started using edible oils and fats as a suitable vehicle for the fortification of vitamin A and D as edible oils are consumed by almost everyone (Diosady and Krishnaswamy, 2018). Oils and fats are structural bodily components, and are involved in vital physiological processes, including growth, development, inflammation, and brain function. Lipoproteins are important cellular constituents, occurring both in the cell membrane and mitochondria, and also serving as the means of transporting lipids in the blood. Oils and fats are responsible for making biological membranes such as phospholipids and cholesterol, vital for making the cell membranes. Most of the edible oils contain several minor constituents which are known as potent nutraceutical constituents with several health benefits. In addition to edible purpose, oils and fats are being used in many industrial applications such as soaps, detergents, cosmetics, lubricants, specialty chemicals, biofuels, etc. Hence oils and fats are indispensable source for food (edible oils and nutraceuticals), fuel (biodiesel, lubricants etc.) and fabulous chemicals (oleochemicals).

27.1 INTRODUCTION

In India, the horticulture sector contributes around 29 per cent of the GDP and 37 per cent of the total exports of agricultural commodities from about 13.08% of area. India has been placed as the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables; largest producer and consumer of cashew nut, tea, spices; third largest producer of coconut; fourth largest producer and consumer of rubber and sixth largest producer of coffee in the world. Several new programmes area in operation and significant developments in area expansion, production, value-addition and exports have taken place. Today, as a result of better synergy between research agencies, technological and policy initiatives by the governmental agencies, proactive participation of private players and higher degree of diversification to horticulture, this sector has emerged as a sustainable and viable proposition for even the small and marginal farmers including different stakeholders in the commodity chain. In spite of the remarkable progress made in the horticulture Sector in India, there is lot of scope in improvement in safety and quality aspects of horticultural produce.

The concept of biosafety encompasses a range of measures, policies and procedures for minimizing potential risks likely to appear to the environment and human health. Such safeguards must be put in place now. Biosafety is currently being promoted in a variety of ways by industry, governments and civil society. Quality and safety become prime concern because most of the horticultural produce are consumed daily in fresh, cooked and processed form and contribute major share in our daily diet. To ensure biosafety and quality of horticultural produce we need to ensure: a)Supply of quality inputs, b)Adoption of good cultural practices, c) Handling and processing of horticultural produce in scientific /hygienic manner, d)Packing, storage, transportation and delivery etc. in such a way that it reaches at consumers’ table without deteriorating the quality.

To ensure such aspects various preventive and certification measures have been initiated by government and certification agencies all over the globe including India , such as prevention of Food Adulteration Act 1954, Agricultural Produce Marketing Act, 1937, Food Safety Standards Association of India (FSSAI), Food Safety System Certification (FSSC:2200), International Food Certification (IFC), Food Chain Traceability, Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP), Food Product Orders (FPO), etc. The major emphasis under these certifications/regulations is to ensure quality and safety of the produce and minimize the risks by reducing the biological, chemical, physical hazards like microorganism contamination, level of heavy metal/chemicals/ drugs beyond the critical limits, residual effects of toxic substances etc. Brief of a few certification/regulations are listed below.

Introduction

Fruits and vegetables (F&V) are good sources of phytochemicals like carotenoids, phenolics, dietary fibers, minerals and vitamins and are considered as important components of a healthy diet. These bioactive compounds in fresh F&V have been linked to delay in onset of many diseases including cardiovascular, chronic and other non-communicable diseases. WHO reported an approximate 3.9 million deaths all over the world in 2017 due to insufficient consumption of F&V (WHO, 2019). Hence, health advisors and nutritionists recommend inclusion of fresh fruits and vegetables to complement the daily diet, and WHO recommends the consumption of a minimum of 400g F&V daily in five portions. However, beneficial raw F&V may contain pathogenic microorganisms, such as Salmonella, E. coli, and Listeria that can pose threat to consumer safety. Since fruits and some of the vegetables are eaten raw, there are chances that pathogenic microorganisms may also enter food chain. Nearly a half of food borne illnesses in United States are caused by microbes on fresh produce (CDC, 2019). The F&V are handled by producers, dealers, wholesalers, retailers and several intermediaries, and therefore, are at greater risk of possible contamination till it reaches the consumer.

The ever increasing demand for F&V has led to overexploitation of pesticides usage in the farms, leading to harmful pesticide residues in air, soil, water and on the F&V surfaces. Thus, it is imperative to maintain the quality and safety of F&V all through the supply chain. In this chapter, we discuss various pre and postharvest factors affecting the quality and safety of F&V, storage techniques to extend shelf life and reduce the safety threat as well as methods available for microbial and pesticide decontamination of fresh F&V.