eChapters

MMPs are a family of zinc-containing, calcium-dependent endopeptidases secreted by various cell types and implicated in a wide range of physiological events (e.g. trophoblast invasion, development, endometrial remodeling, ovulation, angiogenesis, wound healing, bone resorption and cell migration) as well as in pathological processes. Matrix metalloproteinase (MMPs) and their tissue inhibitors (timps) have been strongly implicated in the pathogenesis of many types of human cancer. Expression levels for the most relevant MMPS are confirmed by reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The activities of MMPs are significantly higher in malignant tissues than benign canine tumours.

Complete feed system is a system of ruminants feeding in which roughage and concentrate mixture are mixed homogenously in a predetermined ratio and processed in to pellet, briquette or block form to provide the animals a nutritionally balanced diet. Complete feed system is advantageous over conventional feed system as it reduces the cost of labour, transportation and storage of feed, besides ensuring uniform supply of nutrients and maintaining the optimum rumen environment due to the constant dietary roughage: concentrate ratio, which also avoids the selective feeding.

A successfully developed new cultivar should have stable performance and broad adaptation over a range of environments, seasons and locations, in addition to high yield potential. Evaluating performance stability and range of adaptations is becoming increasingly important in breeding programs. Since stability and adaptability are important selection criteria in breeding programs, in depth research on stability is needed for a better estimate of crop performance and adaptability (Lin and Binns, 1988).

Having realized the importance of genotype × environment, several biometrical models have been developed to analyse the stability of genotypes. Such models have been discussed, critically reviewed comprehensively by Knight (1970), Freeman (1973), Hill (1975), Brain (1986) and Gautam et al. (1986).

However, the various methods proposed for the statistical analysis of genotype × environment are based on one of following approaches (Jain, 1982). In the first the variance interactions are estimated by equating the observed mean squares in the analysis of variance to their expectations on the random model. The second approach called phenotypic approach by Hill (1975) used the technique of partitioning the genotype _× environment component of variability into its linear and non-linear portions of assessing the stability of genotypes over a range of environments. This approach which is very widely adopted in plant breeding, came to be known as “Joint regression analysis”.

Many workers contributed for the development of this approach, notably Finlay and Wilkinson (1963), Eberhart and Russell (1966), Freeman and Perkins (1971) and Shukla (1972). The third approach called genotypic approach which also suggested by Hill (1975) is based on fitting of general models in which it specify, the contribution of genetic, environmental and genotype × environment to the generation means and variance. The contributions for he development of this approach were from Bucio (1966), Bucio and Hill (1966), Bucio et al. (1969), Perkins and Jinks (1968), Breese (1969), Hill and Perkins (1969) and Perkins (1970). Linear regression and joint regression models were more commonly used due to their simplicity and reliability in biological experiments. In general, these approaches fall conveniently into two parts.

Object: Preparation of solutions. 

Material required: Volumetric flask, measuring cylinder, beakers, pipettes, balance, distilled water and chemicals. 

Theory: The use of solution is common in experimental procedures of plant physiology. It is very important for a student to be familiar with their preparation. The substance dissolved in a solution is called solute and the medium in which it is dissolved is known as solvent. Solutions of two liquids (e.g. alcohol in water) and solid in liquid (e.g. NaCl in water) are most common. Solutions are thus a homogenous mixture of a solute in a solvent. 

1.    Powdery mildew
        
2.    Die-back
        
3.    Black spot
        
4.    Rust

CONTAMINATION

The healthy inner flesh of meat contains few or no microorganisms, although they have been found in lymph nodes, bone marrow and intestine. Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Clostridium and Salmonella have been isolated from lymph nodes of red meat animals. During slaughtering the lymph nodes are removed from edible parts. The important contamination, however comes from external sources during bleeding, handling and processing. During bleeding, skinning and cutting the main sources of microorganisms are from the exterior of the animal- hide, hoof and hair and the intestinal tract. The exterior of the animal harbours large number and many kinds of microorganisms from soil, water, feed and manure as well as its natural surface flora.

Knives, cloths, air and hands and clothing of workers can serve as intermediate sources of contamination. During handling and processing the contamination can come from containers, air, other contaminated meat, equipments and personnel.

Molds that grow on the surface of the meat include the species of Cladosporium, Sporotrichum, Geotrichum, Mucor, Monilia, Penicillium and Alternaria. The important bacteria found in meat are Staphylococcus, Sarcina, Streptococcus, Clostridium, Leuconostoc, Lactobacillus, Proteus, Flavobacterium, Bacillus, Streptomyces, Escherichia and Salmonella.

I. In vivo culturing technique

In vivo culturing means culturing of entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) in the host. Generally rice meal moth, Corcyra cephalonica and greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella are used as insect hosts for rearing EPNs.Insect hosts such as Spodoptera, Helicoverpa and Bombyx mori are also used for culturing Steinernema and Heterorhabditis but these insects need plant host especially leaves for culturing. Corcyra can be grown in broken cumbu grains and Galleria in honey comb or artificial diet.

Decisions need to be taken by the farmer as to how to implement disease management in the most effective and economic manner. Many of these decisions are taken a long time before any diseases appear, such as the crop rotation, time of planting, amount of fertiliser, etc. During the growing season, however, continual decisions need to be made regarding disease management.

Aim: To determine the Efficiency Vs Load characteristics (External characteristics) of D.C. shunt motor Swinburne’s method.

This method is an indirect method of testing a DC machine. It is named after Sir James Swinburne. Swinburne’s test is the most commonly used and simplest method of testing of shunt and compound wound DC machines which have constant flux. In this test the efficiency of the machine at any load is pre-determined. We can run the machine as a motor or as a generator. The iron and friction losses are determined by measuring the input to the DC machine at no-load. The machine is to be run as a motor at normal voltage and speed. The Swinburne’s method includes all the losses in the field circuit and winding which do not occur actually in the machine but the error introduced due to this is quite insignificant and still shows the accurate results. In this method of testing no-load losses are measured separately and eventually we can determine the efficiency.

Urban local bodies refer to the local government institutions that are responsible for the administration and governance of urban areas. These bodies are established to address the specific needs and challenges of urban areas, including cities, towns, and other urban settlements. Urban local bodies play a crucial role in managing urban infrastructure, providing essential services, and promoting urban development. They are responsible for areas such as urban planning, public health, sanitation, solid waste management, transportation, water supply, and housing. The composition and structure of urban local bodies vary across different countries and regions, but they typically consist of elected representatives who work towards the overall development and well-being of urban communities.

ABSTRACT

Mandarin Orange (Citrus reticulata Blanco.), known as ‘Suntala’ to the local populace, is a major cash crop and was once a pride of Darjeeling hills. It is grown in approximately 930 ha with an annual production of 148.224 metric tones and annual turnover of Rs. 25 crores approximately. Since early 1970s, orange orchards in the Darjeeling hills started to be unproductive inflicting huge economic loss showing severe citrus decline. Gradually the malady assumed alarming proportions and threatening the cultivation of the crop. The major causes for the bottleneck of the citrus industry in Darjeeling hills  is  the heavy incidence of insect pests, diseases and nutritional deficiencies.

1.    Wilt
        
2.    Rust
        
3.    Septoria leaf spot
        
4.    Powdery mildew
        
5.    Chrysanthemum stunt

Definition: Ferns are flowerless plant that has feathery or leafy fronds. These are reproduced by spores released from the undersides of the fronds.

It is a member of a group of about 10,560 known extant that differ from mosses by being vascular (i.e. having water-conducting vessels). Like other vascular plants, they have branched stems and leaves.

A wide range of beautiful plants exist among ferns which are very popular worldwide. Ferns are grown for their beautiful foliage and their gracefulness. Most of the house ferns are native of tropical regions and are ideal for indoor planting, as they can grow well under shaded or semi-shaded situations. Many species of ferns are native to India. Some of them can be easily grown while others are much difficult, but can be grown well preferably under suitable growing media and proper management.

Introduction

Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) viz., Heterorhabditis, Neosteinernema and Steinernema have been recovered from many regions of the world and have been used commercially as biocontrol agents of insect pests. They are associated with mutualistic bacteria in the genus Xenorhabdus for Steinernematidae and Photorhabdus for Heterorhabditidae. The infective juvenile nematodes enter their host insect through natural openings (mouth, anus or spiracles), they release bacteria into the insect and cause rapid death of insect host (24-48 h). EPNs were used against many insect pests viz., rice leaf folder, Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Srinivas and Prasad, 1991); tobacco cutworm, Spodoptera litura (Rajkumar et al., 2003); brinjal fruit borer, Leucinodes orbonalis (Hussaini et al., 2002) diamond back moth, Plutella xylostella (Singh and Shinde, 2002); Diaprepes abbreviates (Jenkins et al., 2007); Bemesia tabaci (QiuBaoli et al., 2008) and sugar beet beetle (Saleh et al. 2009).

Thermal processing also known as heat processing is commonly used processing method which helps in extending the shelf life of the food productswith high safety level, convenience and a healthy product.Seafood as a whole food is highly nutritious. Benefits to human health associated with the consumption of seafood is well recognized for multiple bodily organs and physiological functions but their high perishable nature is a concern. Seafoodundergoes spoilage due to autolytic, microbial action as well as oxidation of lipid. Proper handling and preservation is essential to maintain quality of fish. Heat processing is an age old preservation method practiced in many countries to extend the shelf life of food products. Heat treatment causes the destruction of microbes which increases the shelf life. There are number of thermal processing operations like- baking, blanching, canning, dehydration, extrusion, frying, pasteurization, sterilization, etc. All these operation serves various purposes and helps in manufacture of different food products.

Thermal processing is of utmost importance to low acid high water activity foods, where there are no hindrances to microbial growth. The proper delivery of heat is essential to cause the destruction of microbes to avoid food spoilage. In seafood’s processing, thermal processing through canning (retort pouch processing) is a common approach. In canning, the food is preserved by application of heat in hermetically sealed cans (pouches). Hermetic sealing means- complete airtight sealing. This prevents contamination from outside. Heating at very high temperature ranging from 110 to 135⁰C for a desirable time helps in killing all the vegetative forms of microorganisms as well as most heat resistant microbial spores. The amount of time needed for processing is different for each food type depends on hurdles present in the food and heat transfer characteristics. In thermal processing of seafood products, heat processing is aimed for the destruction of spores of Clostridium botulinum. A number of thermally processed ready-to-eat (RTE) products are available on market shelf.