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In the area of pharmaceutical discovery, screening methods continue to play a major role in drug discovery. The screening process is simply testing molecular entities (compounds/natural products) for activity to advance those that exhibit the desired activity. This process has evolved over time in both the testing methods and in the degree of testing. Originally, the screening was done entirely by dosing animals and studying their responses. Then came test tube experiments and now, testing is conducted either with cell lines or with purified proteins in miniaturized test tubes called microplate wells. Screening by microplate has allowed the degree of testing to increase from a very small selected set of compounds to libraries, which contain thousands of test substances. Technological improvements in many areas of science and information technology have led to the evolution of screening methods from time consuming, animal dosing studies to high throughput screening (HTS) methods that have the potential to generate very large datasets of information in a very short time. Today, developments in bioinformatics have opened up the possibility of virtual (in silico) screens for targets where there is sufficient knowledge of the target or of its ligand. High throughput screening has become a pivotal part of drug discovery for identifying potential lead molecules for specific disease targets. The success of screening is measured by several factors including the throughput and costs of the assays, but ultimately by how many of the HTS hits progress forward through the drug discovery pipeline. Miniaturization of assays by conversion from 96- to 384- to 1536- wells to well-less platforms, such as microarrays and the utilization of automated equipments are methodologies implemented to increase the throughput and reduce the cost of the screen.

Crop: Plants grown in association, sown (or planted) and also harvested by human being, are collectively known as crop.
Crop plants have some economic values and there is an interaction or competition among the plants.

Definition and History

The dictionary meaning of property is ‘estate whether in lands, goods or money’; such property is often referred to as tangible, material or physical property. The laws of the land protect the ownership of and the associated rights to physical property. In contrast, “intellectual property is an idea, a design, an invention, a manuscript, etc. which can ultimately give rise to a useful product/ application. The development of such property, as a rule, requires intellectual inputs, ingenuity and innovativeness; it also demands considerable monetary and other resources. Therefore, inventor of an intellectual property would like to ensure at least a fair reward for copied, imitated or reproduced; this minimizes the returns to the original inventor. Intellectual property right recognizes the right of an inventor to derive economic benefits from his invention (i.e. intellectual property); this right is called intellectual property right (IPR), (Singh, 2002). The governments, however, recognize the IPR, only so long as it is not to the detriment of the society. In India, innovation and novel techniques were retained within the families / small social groups that developed them, and there was no other system of protecting their rights to the knowledge so generated. The brief history of intellectual property right in India is:

In 1856, the British Government in India introduced the Act of Protection of Inventions. This act was based on the British Patent Law of 1852.

In 1872, Patents and Designs Protection Act was passed.

In 1883, the Protection of Inventions Act was introduced. It was consolidated as Inventions and Designs Act in 1888.

On 15 August 1947, the Indian patents and designs came under the management of Controller of Patents and Designs.

The Indian Patent Act (1970) was introduced in the parliament in 1965, was modified in 1967 and passed in 1970.

Protection of designs is covered by the Indian Patent and Design Act (1911) with amendments in 1978 and amended rules in 1985.

Trademark protection is in force since 1 June 1948 under the 1940 Act. This act was amended as Indian Trade and Merchandise Marks Act (1958), which became effective on 25 November 1959.

The copyright laws in India are as per international standards.

Introduction

A deep knowledge of veterinary anatomy is essential for more sustainable livestock management practices, enhancing productivity while minimizing environmental impact. Understanding the physiological structure and function of food-producing animals enables professionals to make informed decisions regarding production, meat processing, and food safety. In today's modern workforce, a comprehensive grasp of animal anatomy is essential for success in various fields, including agriculture, veterinary science, food processing, and quality control. Professionals can enhance their expertise, make data-driven decisions, and drive innovation in the food production sector by grasping animal anatomy. Ultimately, this foundational knowledge is vital for advancing careers and ensuring the highest standards of quality, efficiency, and safety in the industry. Meat processing professionals require in-depth knowledge of animal anatomy to guarantee optimal carcass handling, accurate meat quality evaluation, and streamlined production workflows. Expertise in animal anatomy is also crucial for food safety and quality control specialists, enabling them to ensure regulatory compliance and maintain consumer trust. Additionally, knowledge of animal anatomy allows these specialists to identify potential contaminants and implement effective control measures. By possessing a thorough understanding of animal anatomy, industry professionals can optimize efficiency, quality, and safety throughout the meat processing and distribution chain.

Vitamins are essential organic nutrients required by an organism in small quantities. They are essential since they cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from the diet. The term vitamin does not include other essential nutrients like dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids which are needed in larger quantities than vitamins. The term vitamin is derived from “vitamine,” coined in 1912 by the Polish biochemist Funk. The name is from vital and amine, meaning amine of life. Thirteen vitamins are generally recognized presently. Vitamins are used in small quantities by an organism to keep it in a healthy condition.

Soils become acidic due to natural  and artificial (anthropogenic) reasons. The natural reasons include their origin from acidic parent materials namely granite, rhyolite, pegmatite and dacite etc. and areas under high rainfall  (rainfall  exceeding evapotranspiration) removing  basic cations through leaching and erosion particularly in coarse textured soils with undulated, hilly and sloping topography. Under natural condition, accumulation of organic matter and its decomposition also releases organic acids into the soil system, turning soils  acidic. The anthropogenic factors    responsible for turning soils  acidic,  are (i) removal of basic cations through crop cultivation, (ii) continuous use of acid forming fertilizers and (iii) acid rain in industrial areas.

Introduction

Date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.; Family- Arecaceae) also known as Khajoor, Kharek is an ancient important fruit tree of semi-arid and arid regions of the world. It grows well under poor desertic soils due to its hardy plant characteristics and deep root system. It is also suitable fruit trees for growing under saline irrigation conditions. It is well known fact for date palm that its feet in the water and its head in sun. It requires dry hot climate for growth and development of fruits. In arid region, crop production is risky preposition, where date palm cultivation contributes in achieving food security, high nutritive value food, crop diversification, desertification control, higher income generation and foreign exchange earnings. It can be grown at such places where adequate irrigation facility is available besides other dry hot climate conditions (Chandra et al, 1992; Singh and Dhandar, 2007). Better returns from date plantation can be achieved through good management practices besides adequate marketing of produce. The quality produce and its marketing will help to increase the income from date palm cultivation.

1.1 Introduction

The use of sampling in making decisions about an aggregate (or population) is possibly as old as civilization itself. Sampling is first broadly classified into two categories known as subjective and objective. Any type of sampling which depends upon the personal judgement or discretion of the sampler himself, is called subjective sampling. But the sampling method which is governed by a sampling rule or is independent of the sampler’s own judgement is known as objective sampling. The main difficulty with subjective sampling is that the sampler is ignorant of the degree of representativeness of his sample or the accuracy of the final estimates of the population values obtained.

BERSEEM CLOVER (Trifolium alexandrinum)
Fungal diseases
i) Damping-off
Symptoms
Pre-emergence damping-off: Seeds decay inside the soil.
Post-emergence damping-off: Sometimes after germination water-soaked blighted seedlings develop. Seedlings collapse and wilt. Stem and root tissues rot below the soil surface.
Causal organism
i) Pythium spinosum var. spinosum
ii) Rhizoctonia solani
Favourable condition
i) Promoted by high humidity
ii) Poor air circulation.

Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy, signalling, and acting as structural components of cell membrane. Lipids have applications in the cosmetic and food industries as well as in nanotechnology.

Lipids may be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules; the amphiphilic nature of some lipids allows them to form structures such as vesicles, liposomes, or membranes in an aqueous environment. Biological lipids originate entirely or in part from two distinct types of biochemical subunits or “building-blocks”: ketoacyl and isoperen groups. Using this approach, lipids may be divided into eight categories:fatty acids, glycerolipids, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, saccharolipids and polyketides (derived from condensation of ketoacyl subunits); and sterol lipids and prenol lipids (derived from condensation of isoprene subunits).

Although the term lipid is sometimes used as a synonym for fats, fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides. Lipids also encompass molecules such as fatty acids and their derivatives (including tri-, di-, monoglycerides and phospholipids), as well as other sterol containing metabolites such as chloestrol. Although humans and other mammals use various biosynthetic pathways to both break down and synthesize lipids, some essential lipids cannot be made this way and must be obtained from the diet.

1. The nodal agency for international co-operation in the area of agricultural research and education in India is:

 a) ICAR b) DARE

 c) CAU d) CSIR

 2. Which of the following countries is not a member of G-8?

 a) Canada b) france

 c) Germany d) Spain

 3. FSSAI does not provide licensing for:

 a) Non-alcoholic beverage b) Alcoholic beverage

 c) Milk products d) Organic products

Carnivora is an order of placental mammals that have specialized in primarily eating flesh, whose members are formally referred to as carnivorans. The order Carnivora is the fifth largest order of mammals, comprising at least 279 species. They come in a very large array of different body plans with a wide diversity of shapes and sizes. The common characteristics of carnivores are given below:

• They are meat eaters.

• There is the presence of canine teeth.

• The intestinal tract is short and is adapted to rapid digestion as well as the assimilation of meat.

• All species have anal glands. Some species, like the striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis), may eject the contents of the anal gland as a defensive maneuver.

• Os penis is present in males.

• There is a lack of a clavicle which helps in the freedom of movement of the forelimb.

• Ulna is well developed.

• Toes end in claws.

3.1 Introduction

Out of all methods of sampling, the most commonly used procedure in surveys is the stratified random sampling. When population units are of heterogeneous nature and if we select a sample using SRSWOR scheme then the sample selected may not be the representative sample and the estimate worked out from that sample will not be the reliable estimate of the population parameter. The estimate of sampling variance of the sample estimator obtained from that sampling scheme may happen to be very high leading to get a less precise estimate of the parameter. In such type of population, to overcome these draw backs, we use another sampling scheme known as stratified random sampling which is defined as follows.

Introduction

The development of insecticide resistant populations of insect-pests, evidence of resistance, resurgence and environmental concerns have led to increased research for the alternative strategies to pesticides for control of damaging pest populations. Classical biological control and the success in that area are important and provide background and encouragement for increased efforts in the manipulation of natural enemies. Methods for manipulation of natural enemies for the purpose of reducing herbivore populations and alleviating plant stress include conservation and augmentation, habitat management and genetic manipulation.

Virtually all pest populations are affected by natural enemies to some extent. In many cases, natural enemies are the primary regulating force of the pest populations. Natural controls include effects of natural enemies (predators, parasites, pathogens), other biotic (living) factors such as food availability and competition, and abiotic (non-living) factors such as weather and soil. In pest management, biological control usually refers to the action of parasites, predators or pathogens on a pest population which reduces its numbers below a level causing economic injury. Herbivorous insects and pathogens that attack pest weeds are also considered biocontrol agents. Biological control is a part of natural control and can apply to any type of organism, pest or not, and regardless of whether the biocontrol agent occurs naturally, is introduced by humans, or manipulated in any way. Biological control differs from chemical, cultural, and mechanical controls in that it requires maintenance of some level of food supply (e.g., pest) in order for the bio-control agent to survive and flourish. Therefore, biological control alone is not a means by which to obtain pest eradication.

The non-glutinous, easily digestible and alkaline forming characteristics make millets superior in nutritional point of view. Among various cultivated millets 6 in India, barn-yard millet, little millet, brown top millet, guinea millet and kodo millet are the most important minor millets (Nazni and Karuna, 2016). The Barnyard millet, Sawa millet or Japanese barnyard produces a crop within six weeks and considered as the fastest growing minor millets among the all minor millet (Veena et al., 2005). Japanese millet or Barnyard has several existing varieties.

1.1 Introduction Millets were one of the first crops to be domesticated by mankind in Asia and Africa which later spread across the globe as critical food sources to the evolving civilizations. The earliest evidence of millets has been found in the Indus civilization around 3000 BC. Millets are a collective group of small-seeded annual grasses that are grown as grain crops, primarily on marginal land in dry areas of temperate, sub-tropical and tropical regions (FAO). However, due to the popularity of the cereal crops like wheat, rice and maize; millets have lost dominion and have become an underutilized crop in last few decades. Millets have the potential to be the crop of the future, as our major crops have reached yield plateau, also changing climate has introduced several new biotic and abiotic stresses to the major crops, so to feed the ever-growing population we need to shift towards other potential crops. India is the largest producer of millet as it contributes about 41% of the total millet production of the world (APEDA, 2020).

Agriculture, the cornerstone of human civilization, is intrinsically linked to weather and climate. The success of crop production hinges significantly on the prevailing meteorological conditions, which dictate every stage of a plant’s life cycle, from germination and emergence to growth, flowering, and ultimately, yield. Understanding the intricate relationship between weather elements and specific crop requirements is paramount for maximizing agricultural productivity, ensuring food security, and developing resilient farming systems in the face of a changing climate. This chapter delves into the critical role that various weather parameters play in shaping crop performance. We will explore how factors such as temperature, precipitation (rainfall), sunlight (solar radiation, intensity, duration, and quality), humidity, and wind velocity interact to create the ideal environment for different crops. While plants possess an inherent adaptability, each crop species, and often even individual cultivars, has a specific range of “cardinal temperatures” (minimum, optimum

The shift from vegetative to reproductive phase in plants is the result of multiple gene cascades in response to photoperiodic and temperature dependent pathways, gibberellic acid pathway, vernalization pathway and autonomous pathway. The environmental cues are initially detected in the leaves and the mRNA of the flowering signal integrator FT gene, moving to the shoot apical meristem, acts as a long-distance signal for floral meristem identity. At SAM, FT-FD protein complex, based on signals from above said pathways in association with the signals from age-dependent and miRNA pathways, leads to the activation of master regulator gene of flowering AP1. The activation of genes involved in ABCDE model of floral organ differentiation, based on the directions of various cadastral genes lead to the development of floral organs. Thus, the sequential action of floral meristem identity genes, floral organ developmental genes, floral meristem size and organ number genes, floral organ pattern genes and cadastral genes leads to the flower development. This chapter sums up the gene interactions happening in leaf and SAM, leading to the development of a complete flower.

Plants have served as an important food source in the human diet since times immemorial. In recent times, available plant food sources are facing the threat of limitation due to many reasons viz., shrinking of agricultural land, changes in traditional lifestyles, population growth, rapid urbanization, changes in climate and a variety of plant diseases (Strange and Scott, 2005). Technological, development in agriculture and food processing are associated with both benefits and drawbacks impacting the human health globally with people suffering from chronic hunger, malnutrition to over-nutrition and nutritional imbalances.