eChapters

Sales and distribution determine whether a technically excellent ice cream product successfully reaches consumers in the required condition and at the right time. This chapter examines the architecture of ice cream distribution in India, including factory dispatch, CFAs, distributors, retailers, parlours, modern trade, quick commerce, and online channels. It discusses route-to-market design, presales, delivery systems, distribution management, retail execution, outlet classification, freezer deployment, and channel economics. Product flow and information flow are considered together because sales data, stock information, complaints, freezer conditions, and market feedback influence production and planning decisions. The chapter provides practical insights into distribution KPIs, channel management, cold-chain discipline, and strategies for sustainable market growth.

Sales Management

According to American marketing Association “Sales management is the planning, direction and control of personal selling, including recruiting, selecting, equipping, assigning, routing, supervising, paying and motivating as these tasks apply to the personal sales force.”

Sales management as the term implies means management of sales. Initially the concept consisted of managing the sales workforce. Now-a-days, it includes managing of all the sales related activities like advertising, sales promotion, physical distribution, pricing and product merchandising.

Introduction
Psychotherapeutic measures provide a treatment approach to help a person identify and alter disturbing emotions, thought and behaviors.
They include targeted strategies that are used to deal and alleviate mental disturbances. Contemporary approaches are customized techniques to effectively and efficiently delivering solutions to the problems and their manifestations. The history of treatment throws light upon several conventional approaches to deal with multiple disorders. The following discussion provides the insight into the understanding of these approaches: -
1. Psychodynamic Therapy (PDT)
Psychodynamic therapy was the norm in psychiatric practice in the early 20th century. It evolved primarily from Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic ideas, with significant contributions from Karl Jung, Anna Freud and Melanie Klein, among others. The main emphasis is on how early experiences shape and build the psychological systems that are mostly responsible for the unconscious. Finding, exposing and resolving suppressed tensions from previous interactions that inadvertently surface in current interpersonal interactions and give rise to maladaptive behavioral patterns is the aim of psychodynamic therapy. Free association and dream analysis are two methods used to investigate the unconscious drive. The patient is urged to express himself freely and without restraint during free interaction. Using “active listening,” the therapist searches for references or patterns that connect to ongoing developmental and interpersonal issues. This can aid in understanding the unconscious process. The application of dream

Introduction

Soils are formed by weathering of rocks and minerals and all soils contain some amount of soluble salts. Many of these act as a source of essential nutrients for the healthy growth of plants. However, when quantity and quality of salts in the soil near rhizosphere exceeds a particular value, growth, yield and/or quality of most crops is adversely affected. Such a soil is called salt-affected. The degree of adverse effects depends upon the type and quantity of salts, crop and its variety, stage of growth, cultural practices and environmental factors viz. temperature, relative humidity, and rainfall etc. Development of salinity and waterlogging is a serious problem in arid and semi-arid regions of the world and threatening the sustainability of irrigated agriculture.

Soil degradation resulting from salinity and sodicity is a major environmental threat to soil fertility and agricultural productivity in arid and semiarid regions of the world. Saline–sodic soils are degraded due to the simultaneous effect of salinity and sodicity. This causes loss of soil physical structure by clay swelling, and dispersion because of high Na+ concentrations in the soil solution or at the exchange phase. Apart from these physicochemical effects, this leads to biological properties, such as microbial respiration and biomass, becoming worse. On the other hand, salinity affects plant growth by creating osmotic imbalances and specific ion toxicities, which pose limitations to morphological, histological, chemical, biochemical, and metabolic processes. In turn, these reduce stomatal opening and photosynthetic rate, leading to decreased plant growth, crop yield, and quality.

Introduction

The coastal tract of peninsular India extends from Rann of Kutch in Gujarat to Malabar Coast in Kerala on the western coast and from Coromandal coast in Tamil Nadu up to Sunderban delta in West Bengal on the eastern coast. The eastern coast is generally characterized by a wider coast line when compared to its western counterpart. Coastal ecosystem in India occupies an area of about10.78 million hectares (1,07,833 km²) extending in nine states. It also occupies considerable area underLakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands. The extent and distribution of coastalarea have been shown in Table 1.

for limitation of world fresh water supply, farmland availability, salinity ingression and the pressing future need of food supply. The cultivation of salttolerant crops on saline soil and with saline waters has significant social and economic potential. It is often argued that fresh water agriculture near rivers and ponds was invented because of the need to sustain people and communities. Saline water agriculture is going to be needed for sustaining our future generations and civilization.
FROM DESALINATION OF SEA WATER TO SEA WATER AGRICULTURE
Sea water contains nearly 35000 ppm of dissolved salts. There has been great deal of interest world wide on desalination of sea and brackish water to safe drinking water. In early 1960s the young President of USA John Kennedy put forward two famous challenges for the scientists (1) Landing the man on moon and (2) Producing desalinated water at low and competitive cost. It is often said that the first challenge was met but the second one has been more difficult! With tremendous support and interest, work on desalination was taken up worldwide. Newer processes were being tried. At the Environmental Research Lab of University of Arizona and at Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar simultaneously solar powered HD (humidification – dehumidification) process of Desalination was developed and pilot plants were commissioned. It was however realized that desalinated water was costly and not easily applicable to most coastal communities, though for many countries in middle east with no alternative water source and cheap petroleum energy – it is applicable on a very large scale.

Saline Water Agriculture has been drawing interest as one of the solutions for limitation of world fresh water supply, farmland availability, salinity ingression and the pressing future need of food supply. The cultivation of salt-tolerant crops on saline soil and with saline waters has significant social and economic potential.

It is often argued that fresh water agriculture near rivers and ponds was invented because of the need to sustain people and communities. Saline water agriculture is going to be needed for sustaining our future generations and civilization.

There are four major tracts where salt affected soils are commonly met within India. These are:

1. The Semi-arid Indo-Gangetic alluvial tracts (mainly in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and a part of Bihar)
2. The arid tracts of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
3. The arid and semi arid tracts of southern states, particularly of the irrigated rigor (Vertisols) soils.
4. The coastal alluvium

Earlier it was estimated that about 7 million hectares of land have been affected by salinity/sodicity conditions in India. The area under these soils increased and reached to the level 10 million hectares at present.

11.1 Introduction

Salinity is the saltiness or dissolved salt content of a body of water. The technical term for saltiness in the ocean is halinity, from the fact that halides, chloride specifically are the most abundant anions in the mix of dissolved elements. In oceanography, it has been traditional to express halinity not as percent, but as parts per thousand (ppt ), which is approximately grams of salt per liter of solution. In other disciplines chemical analyses of solutions, and thus salinity is frequently reported in mg/L or ppm (parts per million). Prior to 1978, salinity or halinity was expressed as % usually based on the electrical conductivity ratio of the sample to “Copenhagen water”, an artificial sea water manufactured to serve as a world “standard”(Lewis, E.L 1980). In 1978, oceanographers redefined salinity in Practical Salinity Units (psu): the conductivity ratio of a sea water sample to a standard KCl solution (UNESCO, 1981a) (UNESCO, 1981b). Ratios have no units, so it is not the case that 35 psu exactly equals 35 grams of salt per litre of solution (UNESCO, 1985).

These seemingly esoteric approaches to measuring and reporting salt concentrations may appear to obscure their practical use; but it must be remembered that salinity is the sum weight of many different elements within a given volume of water. It has always been the case that to get a precise salinity as a concentration and convert this to an amount of substance required knowing much more about the sample and the measurement than just the weight of the solids upon evaporation. For example, volume is influenced by water temperature; and the composition of the salts is not a constant. Saline waters from inland seas can have a composition that differs from that of the ocean. For the latter reason, these waters are termed saline as differentiated from ocean waters, where the term haline applies.

The total amount of salts dissolved in water is known as salinity. Salinity of water is denoted as ppt, g/L, psu. Salinity of different water has been classified as Freshwater 0-0.5 ppt, Brackish water 0.5-30ppt and Marine water > 300 ppt.
Reagents
1. Silver nitrate (AgNO3) (0.1N): Dissolve 4.25 g silver nitrate in distilled water and make the total volume 250 ml by shaking.
2. Potassium chromate (K2CrO4) indicator (5%): Dissolve 2.5 g potassium chromate in distilled water and make the total volume 50 ml by shaking.
Procedure
1. Salinity in estuarine and coastal water can be estimated by this method.
2. Take 10 ml of water sample in a 50 ml conical flask.
3. Add 3-4 drops of potassium nitrate indicator solution to it.
4. Titrate against 0.1N Silver nitrate till the yellow colour changes to brick red.

Abstract

The Saanich (Coast Salish) are an Indigenous people of southern Vancouver Island on the southwest coast of Canada who for many centuries have relied heavily on anadromous Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.) as a major food source. Over time, Saanich fishers have become experts on many aspects of these salmon, including knowledge of the different species, their life cycles, feeding ecology, migration routes, and population dynamics. Much of this knowledge is centered at Saanich Inlet and Goldstream River, a major salmon spawning stream flowing into this inlet. Some Saanich and other Coast Salish people still fish for salmon at Goldstream using traditional gaff hooks and spears, but they have also adopted more modern gear in recent times. Pacific coho (O. kisutch) and chum (O. keta) salmon stocks in particular have fluctuated over the decades, evidently due to impacts of commercial fishing, pollution from oil leakage and domestic sewage in Saanich Inlet.

Salmonella consists of bacilli leading to Enteric fever, Gastroenteritis, Speticaemia etc. The important member of the genus is Salmonella typhi, which causes Typhoid fever. Salmonella are of two groups;
(i) Enteric fever group consisting of typhoid & Paratyphoid bacilli exclusively or primary human parasites
(ii) Food poisoning group, which are animal parasite but may infect humans causing gastrointestinal infections Salmonella is oxidase negative, catalase positive, indole and Voges Proskauer (VP) negative, methyl red and Simmons citrate positive, H₂S producing andurea negative.
Characteristics
Cells are rod-shaped, non-spore-forming, and predominantly motile by means of peritrichous flagella with diameters of around 0.7-1.5μm and lengths of 2-5μm with a few exceptions. On blood agar, colonies are 2-3mm in diameter. Colonies are generally lactose non-fermenters. They obtain their energy from oxidation and reduction reactions using organic sources, and are facultative anaerobes. They produce acid from glucose usually with the production of gas, and are oxidase negative. Most produce hydrogen sulphide except Salmonella paratyphi A and Salmonella typhi, which is a weak producer. They are identified
with a combination of serological and biochemical tests. Salmonella species are classified and identified into serotypes according to the White-Kauffmann-Le Minor scheme; there are more than 2,500 Salmonella
serotypes that have been described and reported.

Salmonellosis is one of the important zoonoses, acute or chronic in nature, affected by all species of animals, birds and humans and characterized by gastroenteritis.

Etiology: The genus Salmonella belongs to the family Enterobacteriaceae. Currently there are 2463 serotypes (serovars) of Salmonella. According to the current system used by the CDC the genus Salmonella contains two species each of which contains multiple serotypes. The two species are S. enterica, the type species and S. bongori. The S. enterica subsp. enterica is divided into 6 subspecies. S. enterica subsp. enterica I is divided into serotypes, for example serotypes enteriditis, typhimurium, typhi and choleraesuis. The majority of 2463 Salmonella serotypes belong to S. enterica subsp. I and associated mainly with warm blooded vertebrates and are responsible for most Salmonella infections in humans and domesticated animals. Other serovars are restricted in their host range causing severe systemic disease in only one host. For example, S. typhi is restricted to infection in humans, S. abortusovis to infection in sheep, S. dublin in cattle, S. abortusequi in horses and S. choleraesuis in pigs. The serotypes (serovars) that most commonly cause Salmonellosis in farm animal species are as follows:

Cattle: S. typhimurium, S. dublin, S. newport

Sheep and goat: S. abortusovis, S. typhimurium, S. dublin, S. anaturn

Pig: S. typhimurium, S. choleraesuis

Horses: S. typhimurium, S. abortusequi, S. anatum, S. newport, S. enteritidis, S. arizona, S. angona, S. heidelbers

The organisms are Gm- and rod shaped of 1-31μX0.5-0.8μ in size. They are motile with peritrichous flagella except one type S. gallinarum pullorum which are always non-motile. They do not form capsules or spores but may possess fimbriae. Salmonellae are aerobic and facultatively anaerobic growing readily on simple media over a range of pH 6-8 and temperature 15-41°C (optimum 37°C). Colonies are large, 2-3 mm in diameter, circular and smooth. On MacConkey and deoxycholate citrate media colonies are colorless due to absence of lactose fermentation. On Wilson and Blair bismuth sulphite medium, jet black colonies with a metallic sheen are formed due to production of H2S. S. paratyphi A and other species do not form H2S, produce green colonies. Selenite F and tetrathionate broth are commonly employed as enrichment media.

Introduction
Salt-affected soils (SAS) can be found across different latitudes, exhibiting variations in morphology, biology, and chemical, physical, and physicochemical properties (Gupta and Gupta, 2017). Despite their diversity, SAS share a common characteristic: the dominant role of soil solution electrolytes in the soil formation process, leading to properties that create unfavorable conditions for the normal growth of most plants (Szabolcs, 1989). In cases where SAS develop due to natural geomorphological processes, certain plant species, known as halophytes, have evolved specialized physiological adaptations to survive in these environments. Halophytes are capable of thriving in highly saline habitats by effectively managing the stress caused by excessive salt. Plants growing in such conditions employ various adaptive mechanisms to tolerate and flourish despite the salinity challenge. Salt-affected soils (SAS) require specialized management strategies to mitigate the challenges posed by high salinity levels. Plants and organisms in these ecosystems have evolved various adaptations to manage salt levels, such as developing specialized root structures, eliminating or containing excess salt, and efficiently absorbing water and nutrients (Flowers and Colmer, 2015). Despite their typically low alpha-diversity, SAS ecosystems contribute significantly to beta-diversity due to the specialization of organisms that thrive in such challenging environments. However, many of these high-value ecological systems have been severely degraded worldwide as a result of various political and economic decisions. For example, mangroves in countries like Thailand, Vietnam, Mexico, and Ecuador have been destroyed to make way for shrimp farming (FAO, 2007). Sabkhas around the Mediterranean coast have suffered from overexploitation of the aquifers that sustain them, and the reduction of water flow to closed drainage basins, such as in the case of the Aral Sea, has occurred due to water being diverted for irrigation, especially for cotton farming. Further degradation is seen in the transformation of SAS wetlands into agricultural fields through drainage, a practice observed in many regions (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2007). These ecosystems, once considered wastelands

Technical Term          Definition

Soil                             Soil is the superficial unconsolidated and usually weathered part of the mantle of a planet and especially of the earth

Salt affected soils can be defined as the soils containing excess amount soluble salts in their profiles in a proportion that adversely affect to soil properties and ultimately on crop growth. The soluble salts present in these soils are composed primarily with calcium, magnesium and sodium as cationic and chlorides sulfates and carbonates as anionic constituents along with the presence of potassium, nitrate and others as minor quantities. All soils invariably contain some soluble salts, but they cause harmful effects on crop growth only when accumulates in excess amount in soil solution or increase their concentration in exchange complex of the soil. Based on the presence of sodium salts and the predominance of sodium in the exchange complex, salt affected soils are classified into main categories of 1) Saline soils – contain excess soluble sodium in soil solution with little or no sodium content in exchange complex, 2) Alkaline (Sodic) soils – contain appreciable quantity of sodium adsorbed in exchange complex of soil but may or may not contain soluble sodium salts in soil solution. These soils are also divided into following types –

    1.    Salt affected soils;
    2.    Classification of salt affected soils; 
    3.    Formation of salt affected soils; 

Poor quality of water is one of the important factors causes gradual accumulation of salts on the ground or in the root zone of crops leads to saline and alkaline condition. This results in loss of permeability, toxicity and anaerobic conditions. In salt affected soils plants face constraint to derive their nutrients at the required rate due to high soil moisture tension, which affects adversely the crop growth and productivity.

10.1 Causes of Salt Problems

The following are the reasons for causing the soils become saline or alkaline.
1. Rise in water table: A rise in water table and high evaporation and transpiration rates with poor drainage lead to build up dissolved salts.
2. Quality of irrigation water: Irrigation water contains the dissolved salts exceeding certain limit cause accumulation of salts in soil profile.

Poor quality of water is one of the important factors causes gradual accumulation of salts on the ground or in the root zone of crops leads to saline and alkaline condition. This results in loss of permeability, toxicity and anaerobic conditions. In salt affected soils plants face constraint to derive their nutrients at the required rate due to high soil moisture tension, which affects adversely the crop growth and productivity.