eChapters

Bioinformatics encompases the use of tools and techniques from three separate disciplines; molecular biology (the source of the data to be analyzed), computer science (supplies the hardware for running analysis and the networks to communicate the results), and the data analysis algorithms, which strictly define bioinformatics. So the list below incorporates events from these areas into a brief history of the field.

Genus : Carica 
Species : papaya L.
Family : Caricaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 18, 36

The papaya plant is a huge/giant herbaceous plant and in general appearance looks more like a palm although there exists no botanical relationship between them. Papaya is said to be native of tropical America where it is a common fruit however the exact place of its origin is not well determined. Presently the plant is widely distributed and is abundant in India, Sri Lanka and many other countries of the Malaya Archipelago, Hawaii. Papaya fruit as well as all plant parts contain a milky sap called papain. This enzyme resembles animal pepsin in its digestive action and has become an important article of commerce, is utilized in the clarification of beer and its digestive action too has been very well recognized. Another remarkable papaya character is the irregularity which it presents in the sex distribution. Being dioecious, staminate and pistillate flowers are produced on different plants, besides a number of intermediate form have also been observed.

Genus : Anacardium 
Species : occidentale L.
Family : Anacardiaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n =42

This delicious nut fruit of family Anacardiaceae is unique in number of ways firstly for fruits brilliant shades of colour (yellow to dark red-scarlet) characteristic aroma makes it one of the most enticing of tropical fruits. Secondly it multiplies and grows very fast and produces in abundance its attractive handsome fruits. Thirdly the cashew fruit is very peculiar for at the first look the swollen peduncle and disc (cashew apple) is taken to be the real fruit, a fact which is not true. The real fruit of commerce is the kidney shaped nut attached to the lower portion of the cashew apple. The English name cashew is adapted from Portuguese word ‘Caju’. India is one of the major cashew producer and exporter.

Genus : Cocos 
Species : nucifera L.
Family : Palmae
Chromosome No. : 2n =32

“Tree of heaven, Tree of life, Mankind’s 
                                                  greatest provider in the tropics”    

The generic name Cocos is after Portuguese for monkey which refers to the end of the nut being like a monkey’s head. The genus comprises of beautiful palms and grows to majestic form in its natural habitat usually unarmed trees with pinnatisect leaves. Spadices appear in leaf axis grown widely in almost all the tropical countries. Coconut is often considered as Kalpa Vriksha (Tree of Heaven) for it not only supplies drink, food and shelter but also provides raw material for number of industries.

Genus : Psidium 
Species : guajava L.
Family : Myrtaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 22, 33

Guava (Psidium guajava) for its high adaptability to varied soil and climatic conditions along with plants hardy nature, in short period of time has naturalized so much to the Indian condition effectively that today it is a common backyard fruit in almost every house. The round topped plant with wide crotched branch and light green foliage has an added advantage as landscape plant. From horticulture perspective it is one of the most common fruits grown commercially in India and is ranked next to mango, banana and citrus in respect of area and production. Guava fruit is often referred to as apple of tropics probably as it is the only tropical fruit which matches the high nutritive values of more commercially important temperate fruit apple. In the present tropical fruit culture scenario guava is considered to be the precocious, most prolific and highly paying fruit crop and the horticulturist admire this specie as it is least

Genus : Syzygium 
Species : cumini (L.) Skeels
Family : Myrtaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 40

Syzygium cumini Jamun, Genus name Syzygium in from Greek word united, referring to the calyptra petals and is an important minor fruit of considerable commercial significance besides being tall growing with evergreen handsome foliage is often used as road side avenue plantation to provide shade. As with other genera this fruit crop is indigenous to the East Indies, is cultivated for its fruit which is refreshing when taken with salt in scorching summer heat in India. The plants are small evergreen with attractive glossy light green foliage found growing along river sides and also planted in avenues.

Genus : Litchi 
Species : chinensis  Sonn.
Family : Sapindaceae
(Sub family-Nepheleae)
Chromosome No. : 2n=30

A Chinese renowned statesman Chang Chow-ling of the eighth century in a poem on litchi indicated it as the most luscious of all fruits, and in quality surpasses the other two southern China’s famous fruits i.e. orange and peach. Litchi cultivation has been restricted to few selected sites mainly for its somewhat exacting in its climatic and cultural requirements. In recent times as litchi has established in the tropical America, there appears no doubt that very soon the fruits shall be in abundance in different parts of the tropics and subtropics. The most limiting factor in early dissemination of litchi was the perishable nature of seed and prior to steam navigation it was very difficult to transport the seeds from one continent to another successfully.

Genus : Nephelium 
Species : lappaceum L.
Family : Sapindaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 22

Rambutan is one fruit from the Malay Archipelago which has become very popular in its place of origin and is well distributed here. Besides, rambutan a number of other valuable tropical fruits are present which are yet to be cultivated extensively in other tropical and subtropical parts of the world. In Singapore and Penang the fruit grows in abundance. Though very popular in Malay Archipelago, Sri Lanka, however it is unknown in India, Madagascar, Mauritius etc. The fruits common name has been derived from Malayan word rambut referring to hairs by which the fruit surface is covered with. The fruit is also known by other names like Rambustan, rambotang, ramboetan etc. The crop is strictly tropical in climate requirements and is very sensitive to frost. For best performance it likes a hot and moist climate and is a major factor why the crop has not succeeded in most other places.

Genus : Morus 
Species : alba, nigra, rubra L.
Chromosome No. : 2n=28  
2n=42  2n=28 (56, 84)

Plants are ornamental and fruit bearing trees have wide adaptability. Plant loves to grow on garden soils but also grow or rocky and marginal soils. The number of species is disputable but two species are native of North America. Mulberries are usually cultivated as food or for rearing of silkworms and for the edible fruits. The silkworm mulberry is M. alba and fruit bearing mulberry is M. rubra. In India and elsewhere mulberry is known primarily as a fruit bearing tree, although it is not yet planted extensively, though few trees around home ground are common. Mulberry is remarkable for its foliage and for variable forms. The extent of variability is so pronounced that several forms may be present of a single tree and different trees of the same species show distinct individual

Genus : Diospyros 
Species : kaki L.
Family : Ebenaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n=60, 90

Persimmon-Kaki, though native of China, but it was in Japan where the fruit developed to its present status and much of the cultural practices were established or developed in Japan, hence the Japanese name by which it was popular in Japan was accepted all over the world. Japanese persimmon sometimes called as date plum and Chinese date-plum are the names generally used to describe persimmon in United States. The Chinese name is Shitz and in France it is called as plaquemine. In Japan Kaki is regarded to be their prime and best fruit and about 800 cultivars have been recorded and described. Likewise the Chinese also fancy persimmon and large areas have been put under its cultivation.

Genus : Diospyros 
Species : kaki L.
Family : Ebenaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n=60, 90

Persimmon-Kaki, though native of China, but it was in Japan where the fruit developed to its present status and much of the cultural practices were established or developed in Japan, hence the Japanese name by which it was popular in Japan was accepted all over the world. Japanese persimmon sometimes called as date plum and Chinese date-plum are the names generally used to describe persimmon in United States. The Chinese name is Shitz and in France it is called as plaquemine. In Japan Kaki is regarded to be their prime and best fruit and about 800 cultivars have been recorded and described. Likewise the Chinese also fancy persimmon and large areas have been put under its cultivation.

Genus : Persea 
Species : americana Mill.
Family : Lauraceae
Chromosome No. : 2n =24

Horticulturally avocado (Persea americana) is a new fruit and is often considered to be  one of the most   nutritive of present day fruit crops. Genus Persea, name has been derived from ancient Greek name of an Egyptian tree with sweet fruits  derived probably from Perseus. Avocado belongs to the family Lauraceae, has 47 genera and about 1900 species. Genus Persea has some 150 species of tropical evergreen trees. Its discovery in the new world has contributed much to the human diet. Fruit is a rich source of fat (27%), 2 per cent protein content is higher than in any other fresh fruit, mineral like Ca, Cl, Fe, Mg, P, K, Na and sulphur are also higher that makes avocado as a useful food which produces more of base forming elements rather than acid forming elements that are found more only in nut crops.

Genus : Achras /Manilkara
Species : sapota L. zapota (Mill.) Forberg 
Family : Sapotaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n=26

Thomas Firmingaer, an English horticulturist while in India in praise of sapota wrote ‘a more luscious, cool and agreeable fruit is not to be within this or perhaps any other country in the world’. A French botanist described sapota as ‘the sweet perfumes of honey, jasmine and lily of the valley’. In view of these the fruit is considered to be one of the best fruits of tropical America, although cannot be compared with the other more popular fruits of the region i.e. pineapple and cherimoya. In many tropical parts of the world this delicious fruit is held in high esteem.

Genus : Punica 
Species : granatum L.
Family : Punicaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 16,18

Pomegranate has originated in Afghanistan and Iran the abode of prophet Mohammad and for very long has been associated with grape and fig and is still held in higher esteem. Acknowledging the multi usefulness of pomegranate Prophet Mohammad said ‘Eat the pomegranate sententiously for it progress the system of envy and hatred’. The crop was very much in demand and liked by the inhabitants prior to the days of Mohammad in the Orient, as pomegranate has something special in the form of refreshing which the people of hot arid region like and adore enormously. The ancient Semitic name rimmon was adopted by Arabs as rumman. The Potruguese roma or roman was formed from rumman. The present botanical name Punica granatum has been derived from Roman name malum punicum (apple of Carthage) and granatum.

Genus : Passiflora 
Species : edulis Sims.
Family : Passifloraceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 18

The passion fruit (Passiflora edulis) is another fascinating tropical fruit besides having both dessert and processing qualities, the crop also has a big multi coloured very attractive flower and fruit with district taste  and flavour. Passion fruit is very popular in number of tropical and subtropical countries. Despite having variability at the species level the commercial development has not progressed as desired which is evident from the fact that the available commercial types are highly susceptible to diseases, lack of adaptation to soil and climate extremes, high establishment costs growing management problems  harvesting and market costs have forced the grower to focus on other remunerative crops. Passion fruit is said to be good source of minerals especially calcium, phosphorus and iron, vitamin A, niacin and riboflavin.

Genus : Eriobotrya 
Species : japonica Thunb./Lindl.
Family : Rosaceae 
Chromosome No. : 2n = 34

In Orient this beautiful and excellent fruit has failed to acquire the commercial significance which the crop deserves, further no concerted efforts have been made to improve it through selection and cultivation as has been done for many other Asiatic fruits. In contrast to major tropical and subtropical fruits which are said to be too sweet, loquat is one fruit that has subacid, sprightly flavoured fruits that match in taste and flavour to those of temperate fruits. The loquat has been in cultivation since antiquity in Japan and under present fruit culture scenario is one of the important fruits of that country

Genus : Durio 
Species : zibethinus Murray.
Family : Bombacaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n= 56

The exact place to which durian is indigenous is not established with certainity. The specie is said to be native to Borneo and other adjoining islands of Malay Archipelago. The species is seen growing in Sri Lanka and some other tropical countries. Outside the Malayan region durian cultivation is greatly restricted and is usually confined to the botanic gardens from study point of view. The crop has failed to move away from its native place primarily due to the fact that seeds are highly perishable which has restricted durian movement within tropical places of the world. Further due to the disagreeable flavour this fruit has not met with the favour from the Europeans. The banks of the Sarawak River are covered with many fruit trees that basically fulfill the food requirements of the local inhabitants called as Dyaks. Of the different kinds of fruit tree, durian is the most important found in abundance and is rated very highly.

Genus : Garcinia
Species : mangostana L.
Family : Guttiferae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 56-76, 88-96, 120-130

In family Guttiferae to which mangosteen belongs, very few plants are fruits and yield drugs, gums and resins. It is a tropical fruit and occupies an important place in Garcinia family. The European voyagers on their return indicated wonderful stories of the East and mention of mangosteen received huge praise. Hacobus Bontius termed the fruit as ‘Queen of fruits’ the finest fruit in the world. Because of beautiful colouring of fruit alongwith pleasant delicate flavour makes mangosteen the most esteemed fruit of Asiatic tropics and no other tropical fruit equals to that of mangosteen. Despite being designated as the finest fruit of the tropics, the fruit is mainly confined to the limits of East Indies. The species is found wild in the forests of Sunda Islands and of the Malay peninsula. Writers have indicated that mangosteen is usual dooryard tree in the East Indies, more in Java and Sumatra. Some small orchards of mangosteen have come up in Sri Lanka, but they are most abundant only in Malay Archipelago.

Genus : Carissa
Species : grandiflora A.D.C. carandas L.
Family : Apocynaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n=22

The carissa (Carissa grandiflora) is regarded not only for its ornamental value but also for its edible fruits. The plant is not very demanding in its climatic requirements. It grows successfully in the warm moist tropical regions and also in the dry subtropics where the temperature never falls below 26-28oC. In United States, especially in California, Carissa is injured by frost, whereas in Florida frost has no influence on the crop. This crop species is valued highly as a hedge plant, as it resists severe pruning and resultant growth is usually low and compact, which are desired traits for hedge plant. The thorny, stout branches make an impenetrable barrier for animals.

Genus : Physalis 
Species : peruviana L.
Family : Solanaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 28, 48

Physalis (Greek for Bladder, as the thin calyx enlarges and encloses the fruit). Fruit is called as husk tomato or ground cherry. Is  a plant of warm and temperate  regions and is mostly cultivated for its edible fruit  which is sub acidic in taste and  the flavour resembles that of tomato hence the name tree tomato or husk tomato. The genus comprises  nearly 75 species mostly of American origin, however few species are also found in Asia and Europe. The species peruviana and pubescens are cultivated for their edible fruit whereas P. alkekengi Linn and  P Franchetii  Hort., are highly valued for their shiny large red calices. Plant is a very old garden plant grown mainly for its brilliantly coloured calices, is perennial, grows zigzag with soft pubescence  on stems. Leaves ovate, base broad and angular, petiole spreading at top. Flowers whitish with yellow anthers.

Genus : Phyllanthus
Species : emblica L.
Family : Euphorbiaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 28

The aonla (Emblica officinalis syn. Phyllanthus emblica) is native of tropical south-eastern Asia, and to central and southern India in particular. Aonla although considered as a minor fruit, but is of commercial significance primarily due to early high returns without much care. The small lateral branches resembles pinnate leaves of walnut or sumac and when fall off leaves behind a big scar. Flowers are axillary, apetalous mono or dioecious in small clusters or singly. Plants show great adaptability, are hardy and high bearer. The genus Phyllanthus (Greek-for leaf flower) has some 500 species or even more and two have been identified as important from fruit point of view i.e. P. emblica and P. acidus.

Genus : Juglans 
Species : regia L.
Family : Juglandaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n=2x=32

Walnut (Juglans regia L.) among the nut crops is regarded to be a rich source of proteins, fats and minerals and is said to be a concentrated source of energy. It is on this account that wild walnuts have been utilized as food for human and animals since pre-historic times. It contains good amount of different vitamins of B group and is richest in vitamin B6 compared to almond, pecan, filbert, chestnut and Brazil nut. After the last ice age, records indicate that walnut spread from Asia Minor to other parts of the world, while some opinion it to be even older than man as revealed by fossil studies.

Genus : Carya
Species : illinoensis (Wangenh) K. Koch.
Family : Juglandaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 32

Unlike other temperate nut fruits which have been in cultivation for long history of pecan cultivation is just about one hundred years, and in this short period pecan nut has gained huge popularity on account of its sweet nutty flavour and superb tree characteristics that is symmetrical form, luxuriant dark green shinny foliage with added ornamental value. Pecan nut is a remarkable highly valuable gift of North America to the horticulture of the world, and presently occupies fifth position among the leading nut fruit crops. In United States of America, pecan is recognized as ‘Queen of Nuts’

Genus : Castanea 
Species : avellana
Family : Fagaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 24

Before the history was started to be written chestnut nuts in Japan and China were harvested, collected and eaten and aptly has been an important food for man around the world especially in Asia, Asia Minor, Europe and North America for hundreds of years. As early as 50 B.C., chestnut was brought to southern Europe by Greeks from Asia Minor and red Indians in North America prior to its discovery. Used nuts of chestnut was a staple food especially during famine times.

Genus Castanea has 13 species and belongs to the family Fagaceae which also has important forest plants like Oak (Quercus), and beech (Fagus). Species of this genus are grown for ornamental and also for their edible nuts. Three species of chestnut are economically important as they produce edible nuts, are highly variable and selection has been practiced for hundreds of years to select high yielding, large fruited type. The species other than C. dentata (American chestnut) are called ‘Chinkapins’.

Genus : Corylus 
Species : avellana L.
Family : Betulaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n=2x=28

European filbert Corylus avellana L, is known by several names common being Cob, cobnut, hazel, Spanish or Lambert nut, which has been due to its origin, fruit shape, husk and the general appearance. ‘Filbert’ has also come from name ‘full beard’ as the nut of commerce is fully enclosed by the long husk. It is this husk or involucres which very often has been used to distinguish between various species and cultivars. Corylus the genus has been derived from korys which indicate bonnet, hood or helmet and there are several other views of its name being derived after the name of some renowned places. The word ‘hazelnut’ is from anglosaxon haesel meaning hood. Further the term hazelnut is used in European and Filbert in Asian countries for and its other species. However in America, the term is used to refer to three native species C. archericana, C. californica and C. cornuta. Filbert is an important member of birch family, Betulaceae which has a long history of cultivation (8000 to 5500 B.C.). 

Genus : Prunus 
Species : persica Batsch
Family : Rosaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 16

The peach, Prunus persica (L) Batch is unique among the temperate fruits as it is adaptated to varied climatic conditions and it is for this reason that peach and its close relative the nectarine, in a short period has spread rapidly to different parts of the world. Peach is a tree of temperate zone, but has attained higher quality (fruit colour, taste etc.) in areas where the summer temperatures are relatively warm to hot. With the discovery of low chill types ‘Honey’ and ‘Peen to’ forms from southern China, peach cultivation has been spread to warm temperate regions of the world. Normally peach requires from 500-1000 hours of cold/chill hours below 7.2oC for growth and flowering in the spring. Peach history as a garden crop in China is well documented, and forms varying in flesh colour (white, yellow or red), free stone or cling stone, flower colour, large and showy flower type seen presently were also present at very early time i.e. the beginning of the present century.

Genus : Prunus 
Species : armeniaca L.
Family : Rosaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 16

Of all the temperature fruits belonging to tribe pruneae, apricots after cherries are more exacting in their climatic requirements. For this climate specific, apricots are often described as a fruit that fails where other fruits grow successfully. Apricots lavish continental climate, which is characterized by low rainfall (50 cm per year), warm summers and without much variation in winter temperatures and this winter temperature in temperate regions remain close to -33o C. Apricot trees are said to be drought resistant and can sustains low atmospheric humidity but is very sensitive to low soil moisture content.

Genus : Olea 
Species : europaea L.
Family : Oleaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n=2x=46

Amongst the fruit crops, Olive is undoubtedly one of the world’s oldest cultivated crop and its cultivations dates back to 3000 B.C. and till date is recognized as a symbol of peace and prosperity. Olive is an evergreen subtropical plant, but for flowering and fruiting it does require chilling as most of the temperate fruits do. Although slow to grow, olive is a very long lived plant and with its typical dense foliage of olive green and silvery leaves also serves as an ornamental type. The centre of origin includes Palestine, Lebanon, north west Syria and Cyprus. The Greeks and Roman were well aware of the significance of olive oil during 900 to 600 B.C. and oil was considered as a luxury item in body anointment. From its native place olive established itself in the Mediterranean region especially Italy, Spain and from here to other parts of the world.

1. Introduction 

Medicinal plants are a basis of huge economic value all over the world. The use of plants and plant products as remedies could be sketched as far back as the beginning of human civilization. The most primitive medicinal use of plants in Hindu culture is mentioned in “Rigveda”, which is believed to have been written between 4500 - 1600 B.C. and is theoretical to be the oldest arsenal of human knowledge (Dhale and Mogle, 2011). Ayurveda is the base of curative science of Hindu culture, in its eight dissection deals with specific properties of drugs and different aspects of science of life and the art of healing (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 2002). Nature has presented on us an affluent botanical wealth and a large number of varied types of plants nurture in different parts of the country. Herbal medicine is still the basis of about 75 - 80% of the whole population. The major part of traditional therapy occupies the use of plant extract and their active components (Akerele, 1993). Secondary metabolites are green medicines present in plants and plant parts that act as defense system against disease inducing organisms or more accurately to protect against disease due to the physiological and biochemical mechanism failure (Alarcon-Aguilar et al., 2002).

1. Introduction

India throughout its long history has accumulated a prosperous practical acquaintance of the use of medicinal plants for the treatment of various diseases. Chemical studies on Indian medicinal plants make available a priceless material foundation for the discovery and development of new drugs of natural origin. Contrary to the synthetic drugs, antimicrobials of plant origin are not associated with many side effects and have an enormous therapeutic potential to cure many infectious diseases (Bibitha et al., 2002; Maghrani et al., 2005; Doughari, 2006). Plants are used as a medicine in different countries and are a source of many potent and powerful drugs (Kambizi and Afolayan, 2008). Extraction and characterization of several active compounds from these green factories have given birth to some high activity profile drugs (Mandel et al., 2007). Phyllanthus is a medicinally important genus belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. A number of plants of this family are observed to be beneficial for the treatment of liver ailments. Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. is a large climbing shrub growing from 8-10 feet in height. It is used in the traditional medicinal system of our country for treatment of a variety of ailments including small pox, syphilis, asthma, diarrhoea, and bleeding from gums (Kirtikar and Basu, 2003;

1. Introduction

Seaweeds are the extraordinary sustainable resources in the marine ecosystem which have been used as a source of food, feed and medicine. The number of natural products isolated from marine organisms increases rapidly, and now exceeds with hundreds of new compounds being discovered every year (Chapman and Chapman. 1980, Cheennubhotla et al., 1986; Chennubhotla et al., 1987; Faulkner, 2002; Proksch and Muller, 2006). Several products of algal origin such as alginate, carrragenean and agar as phycocolliods have been used for decades in medicine and pharmacy (Fitton, 2006). Seaweeds are considered as source of bioactive compounds and produce a great variety of secondary metabolites characterized by a broad spectrum of biological activities.  Seaweeds contain various inorganic and organic substances which can benefit human health (Kuda et al., 2002). The in vitro studies on green, brown and red algae confirmed the following potential activities viz., cytostatic, antiviral, antihelminthic, antifungal and antibacterial (Lindequist and Schweder, 2001; Newman et al., 2003; Dhargalkar and Neelam, 2005; Huang et al., 2005; Gonzalez del Val et al., 2001; Espeche et al., 1984).

1. Introduction

Atalantia monophylla (L.) DC. is a small tree belonging to the family Rutaceae; resembles Citrus in general aspects and is considered a close wild relative of Citrus. The species is commonly called as wild lime, in Malayalam it is called as Kattunaragam and in Tamil Katuuelumichai. A. monophylla is used in Ayurveda, Folk and Siddha systems of medicine. It is used for the treatment of rheumatoid pain and glandular swelling (Sankaranarayan et al., 2010). The root is believed to be antispasmodic (Kiritikar and Basu, 1999), the leaves are often applied for itching and other skin complaints (Panda, 2004) and acridone alkaloids isolated from roots were reported to have anti-allergic activity (Chukaew et al., 2008). The chloroform extract of leaves has shown antiviral activity (Chansakaow et al., 1996). Besides its medicinal value A. monophylla leaves are used as flavoring agent, berries are used for making pickles, juice of berries are used for dyeing purpose and wood as timber. It is also useful as a rootstock for breeding new cultivars of Citrus Linn. (Guha Bakshi et al., 1999). This species has high medicinal value and the natural population is under threat due to habitat destruction, use of wood as firewood, collection of fruits for making pickles and harvesting of leaves, roots for medicinal purposes by the local communities. Hence there is a need for developing an appropriate conservation strategy for this species.

1. Introduction

Antioxidants are defined as molecules which can be safely interact with free radicals and terminate the chain reaction before vital molecules are damaged (Nidhi and Gaurav, 2012). Naturally occurring antioxidants to replace synthetic antioxidants which are being restricted due to their carcinogenicity (Abdel Hameed, 2009). The antioxidant phytochemicals such as polyphenols, flavanoids and related compounds found in medicinal plants have received increasing attention for their potential role in prevention of human diseases (Upadhyay et al., 2010).
 
The genus Ophiorrhiza belongs to the family Rubiaceae and consists of about 150 species and distributed in tropical and subtropical Asia. Species of Ophiorrhiza are economically important and many of these species contain a high value anticancerous compound, a cytotoxic alkaloid camptothecin and other valuable alkaloids. Ophiorrhiza pectinata Arn. is a herbaceous plant and is distributed over peninsular India and Srilanka. A preliminary study conducted in O. pectinata also contains this important alkaloid (0.0040mg/g dry wt). Leaves and stem contain traces of hydrocyanic acid. The main objective of the present study is to evaluate the antioxidant and radical scavenging property of the chloroform methanol and water extract of whole plant of O. pectinata. 

1. Introduction

The discovery and development of antibiotics have led to dramatic improvement in the ability to treat infectious diseases with emergence of drug – resistant organisms due to irrational and overuse of antibiotics, failure to complete a course of treatment, genetic versatility of microbes and horizontal transfer of resistant genes among bacterial species had led to antibiotic resistance (Amit and Shailendra, 2006; Aibinu, 2007).The need for alternative antimicrobial agents has renewed the interest on plants as a sources of antimicrobial agents due to their use historically and the fact that a good portion of the world’s population, particularly in developing countries, rely on plants for the treatment of infectious and non-infectious diseases.
 
Syzygium aromaticum

Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) is the aromatic dried flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae. The traditional use indicates that Clove has several therapeutic properties, such as an aphrodisiac, stomach, carminative, nervous stimulant and tonic. Reports has been documented  on their aphrodisiac, antibacterial, antifungal, nematocidal, anti-toothache, anti-oxidant, analgesic, anesthetic and hypotensive properties. Although in Iranian traditional medication several formulation containing clove have been used as a nervous stimulant and cognitive enhancer. (Mohammad, et al., 2009).

1. Introduction

Phytochemicals are compounds present in fruits that are not required for normal functioning of the body, but have a beneficial effect on health or play an active role in amelioration of diseases. Phytonutrients have various health benefits like antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, cancer preventive, antidiabetic and antihypertensive. The pigments of the fruits have many therapeutic benefits including vasoprotective and anti-inflammatory properties, antiproliferative, chemo protective and anti-neoplastic properties, reversing age related deficits (Joseph et al.,1999) and useful in controlling oxidative stress during pregnancies complicated by intrauterine growth retardation (Pawlowicz et al.,2000). Cocculus hirsutus Linn. is a climber and widely distributed in tropical and subtropical climates. This plant is commonly called as kattu kodi in Tamil. It belongs to the family Menispermaceae. The fruit is a drupe which is size of small pea with red purple endocarp (Fig.1a and Fig.1b). The plant is used in treatment of gonorrhea, spermatonorrhea, Urinary troubles, diarrhea and hyperglycemia (Kirtikar and Basu, 2002). The leaves of the plant have been evaluated for anti hyperglycemic (Badole et al., 2006); antibacterial (Panda et al., 2007); diuretic and laxative (Ganapaty et al., 2002). Several isoquinoline alkaloids are present in leaves and roots; the important ones cohirsine, cohirsinine, cohirsitinine, hirsutine and jamtine (Viqaruddin et al., 1987; 1991; 1992; 1993). Since no detail scientific approach has been made to study phytochemicals of cocculus hirsutus fruit. So in the present investigation preliminary

1. Introduction

Mounting pressure of teeming population and shrinking land resources have necessitated the production of increasingly more food per unit area. Insect pests, diseases and weeds are important biotic constraints inflicting 20-25% loss in agriculture production. Synthetic pesticides have of course, played a very significant role in restricting many pest problems. However, their indiscriminate has been its toll by creating several problems like pesticide resistance in insects, contamination of food with toxic residues, resurgence of pests and deleterious effects on non target organisms. The number of effective pesticides available is dwindling day by day further having less choice among which to choose. These ill effects have arised interest in alternate methods of plant protection.

The extent to which various plant species are utilized for pest control depends, not only on their effectiveness against target pests, but also on socio-economic, environmental and policy considerations. Keep these in mind the present study on the efficacy of botanicals against Spodoptera litura was carried out.

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants continue to be an important therapeutic aid for alleviating the ailments of humankind. The search for eternal health and longevity for remedies to relive pain and discomfort drove early man to explore his immediate natural surroundings to the use of many plants, animal products and minerals etc for the development of a variety of therapeutic agents. Today, there is a renewed interest in traditional medicine and an increasing demand for more drugs from plants sources. This revival of interest in plant derived drugs is mainly due to the current widespread belief that “green medicine” is safe and more dependable than the costly synthetic drugs, many of which have adverse side effects.

Vitex negundo or Five-Leaved Chaste Tree is commonly known as Nirgundi in India. It is a large aromatic shrub belonging to the Verbenaceae family of plants. It is distributed throughout the greater part of India up to an altitude of 1500 m in the outer Himalayas. It is a gregarious shrub that is found abundant along the banks or rivers, in moist situations, open waste lands and near the deciduous forests. It is widely planted as a hedge plant along the roads and between the roads.

1. Introduction

Food poisoning is a major concern for both the food industry and consumers inspite of different preservation practices some species of pathogenic bacteria causes food spoilage leading to outbreak of illness. Spices and herbs have been added to food since ancient times, not only as flavouring agents, but also as food medicine and as food preservative (Nakatani, 1994). Additives need for food preservation may be harmful to human health and has led to use of natural products especially plant extracts, their essential in food preservation.

More than 90 percent of the cases of food poisoning each year are caused by Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, Vibrio cholerea, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Clostridium perfringens, Campylobacter, Listeria monocytogenes, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Bacillus cereus and Entero-pathogenic Escherichia coli. These bacteria are commonly found on many raw foods and cause severe disorder in humans. Spice posses anti adhesive properties that prevent the microbe to the host tissue, thus preventing the primary infection. It also possesses a rich array of phytochemical and a rich source of antioxidant. Some studies claim that the phenolic compounds present in spices and herbs might also play a major role in their antimicrobial effects.

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants are the most important source of life saving drugs for the majority of the World’s population. Plants have been an important source of medicine for thousands of years. Diabetes is one of the major degenerative diseases in the world today. It is a major risk factor for the development of cardiovascular disease. About 70 - 80% of deaths in diabetic patients are due to vascular disease. Diabetes mellitus is also associated with hyperlipidaemia with profound alteration in the concentration and composition of lipid (Odetola et al., 2006). Changes in the concentration of lipid with diabetes contribute to the development of vascular disease. Excessive levels of blood cholesterol accelerate atherogenesis and lowering high blood cholesterol reduces the incidence of CHD Grundy (1986). One of the risk factors for coronary heart disease is elevated Total Cholesterol (TC), Low Density Lipoprotein-Cholesterol (LDL-C) and Lower High Density Lipoprotein-Cholesterol (HDL-C) (Hu et al., 2001; Schaefer, 2002; Moreno and Mitjavalia, 2003; Jain et al., 2007). In particular, hyperglycemia, the primary clinical manifestation of diabetes, is thought to contribute to diabetic complications by altering vascular cellular metabolism, vascular matrix molecules and circulating lipoproteins (Inoguchi et al., 1994).

1.introduction

The total sum of foods or mixture of foods which an individual consumes each day is referred to as his diet (Okey, 1992). Vegetables that are used as food has nourishing substances called nutrients namely carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins. The nutritive value of different vegetables varies sufficiently and the usage of variety of vegetables ensures all the necessary nutrients required in the diet and its lack in daily menu may result in various disease and deficiencies (Saxena, 1970).  They contain a great variety of all other phytochemicals, some of which claimed to have antioxidant, antimicrobial and also anti-carcinogenic properties (Grudha et al., 1996). But when soaking is done in water either plain or salted with sodium chloride, water soluble nutrients may be leached into the water (Srilakshmi, 1999). An attempt was made in the present study to find out the effect of soaking of some selected vegetables in water for one hour after cutting them into pieces and its nutrient loss.

1. Introduction

Several herbs have been used traditionally to prevent and treat human and animal diseases. Recently, scientific evaluation of plants and preparations of plant origin medications have received more attention. Cassia occidentalis had been reported to be used as antidote of poison, blood purifier, expectorant, anti inflammatory agent and a remedy for the treatment of liver diseases (Ghani, 1920, Kabiruddin, 1951). C occidentalis was tested for antifeedant and insecticidal properties. It was studied successfully for its anti-parasitic (Tona et al., 1999), hepatoprotective activity (Jafri et al., 1999). Stimulation of the immune system is highly desirable for the treatment of immunodeficiency and infectious diseases. The  anti-inflammatory and hepato protective effects of C occidentalis may relate to an influence of plant compounds on immunocompetent cells. The present study was undertaken to find out the effect of methanolic extract of C occidentalis leaves on the humoral immune response in rabbits.

1. Introduction

Plant-derived substances have recently become of great interest owing to their versatile applications. Medicinal plants are the richest bio-resource of drugs of traditional systems of medicine, modern medicines, nutraceuticals, food supplements, folk medicines, pharmaceutical intermediates and  chemical entities for synthetic drugs Medicinal value lies in certain chemical substances that have its physiological action on the human body. Many indigenous medicinal plants are used as spices and food plants. The general techniques of medicinal plant extraction include maceration, infusion, percolation, digestion, decoction, hot continuous extraction (Soxhlet), aqueous-alcoholic extraction by fermentation,  counter-current extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, ultrasound extraction (sonication), supercritical fluid extraction, and phytonic extraction (with hydrofluorocarbon solvents). For aromatic plants, hydrodistillation techniques (water distillation, steam distillation, water and steam distillation), hydrolytic  maceration followed by distillation, expression and enfleurage (cold fat extraction) may be employed.

  1.    Gender Sensitization: Change of Attitude of people towards gender equality, gender roles etc.

  2.    Public-Private Partnership: Involvement of private stakeholders with public entreprises

  3.    Information and Communication Technology (ICT): Use of computer. fax, video, telephones in information sharing & transfer of technology.

  4.    Cyber Extension: Use of computers in extension management.

  5.    Broad Based Extension: Farming system use for maximum use of all available resource to maximize profit

  6.    Bottom-up Approach: Planning from lowest level of society.

  7.    ITK (Indegenous Technological Knowledge): Use of farm community knowledge for development

  8.    Market Led Extension: Transfer of technology basing on assured & confirmed market of the product.

Materials Required

Equipments and machinery used in Postharvest Technology laboratory for processing, packaging and quality analysis.

Procedure

    1.    Identify the equipments and machinery, note down the typical features about its shape, size, colour etc.

Materials Required

Fruits/vegetables, thermometer, refractometers, NaOH, Phenolphthalein, glassware, weighing balance, plastic crates for storage of commodity, water cooling facility.

Procedure

    1.    Harvest the fruit / vegetable
    2.    Count No. of unmarketable fruits in every 100 fruits harvested
    3.    Record the internal fruit temperature in about 5-10 randomly selected fruits with the help of a thermometer
    4.    Pre-cool the commodity in cold water (<5ºC), air or refrigerator till the temperature reaches near its optimum storage temperature
    5.    Record the internal fruit temperature
    6.    Record the time required to pre-cool the commodity
    7.    Keep the product for storage at ambient conditions alongwith control
    8.    Record the difference in the shelf life and quality during storage

Materials Required

Fruits juice, enzymes (pectinase, cellulase, pectinase CCM etc.), filter press, buchner filter apparatus, water bath, filter paper pulp, buchhi type rotary vacuum evaporator, freeze concentrator, membrane concentrator (whichever available), vacuum grease.

Procedure

    1.    Extract the juice as discussed in earlier exercises. Take a known quantity of juice in a conical flask.
    2.    Add enzymes i.e. pectinase @ 0.2% to the juice and keep in a water bath at temperature of 40-50ºC for 2 hrs.
    3.    Shake the flasks occasionally for uniform mixing of enzyme all throughout the flask during the enzymatic treatment.
    4.    Leave the flasks undisturbed for 10-12 hrs for allowing the insoluble solids to settle at the bottom of the flask.
    5.    Siphon the clear juice from the top of the flask.
    6.    Pass this siphoned juice through filter press or through a 0.4-0.5 cm thick bed of filter paper pulp in a Buchner filter apparatus or filter press.
    7.    Record the volume of the clarified juice obtained. Calculate the wastage.
    8.    Concentrate the juice in rotary vacuum evaporator at 50+2ºC temperature and at 28-30” Hg vacuum to a TSS of about 50 to 70º Brix. Record the exact TSS.
    9.    Record the volume of condensate obtained in the round bottom flask of the buchhi apparatus.
    10.    Calculate the folds of concentration

Materials Required

Fruit pulp, cane sugar, potable water, essence, citric acid, colours, preservatives, weighing balance, glass jars (500 ml capacity), jar closures, hand refractometer, steel pan, ladle etc.

Procedure

    1.    Select sound and fresh fruits, free from any blemishes. Generally a mixture of ripe and unripe fruits should be taken as the ripe fruits impart good flavour and the unripe fruits are rich in pectin, required for a good set.

    2.    Wash the fruits thoroughly. Cut into 4-8 pieces depending upon the fruit and size
    3.    Boil the fruit pieces for about 20-25 min in boiling water and pass through pulper to get a good pulp.
    4.    Weigh known quantity of fresh or preserved pulp and add about equal quantity of sugar (preferably in 45:55 ratio)
    5.    Cook the mixture on gas flame by occasional stirring. 
    6.    When the mixture becomes thick, perform sheet test.
    7.    Citric acid is added generally towards the end of cooking. Addition of all the acid in the beginning may result in stickiness and poor set. 
    8.    Remove from the flame when the mixture gives a clear sheet
    9.    Flavours, colours etc may also be added towards the end of boiling. 
    10.    Fill the jam in glass jars (preferably pre-warmed in hot air).
    11.    Close the jars with lug caps and allow to cool overnight.
    12.    Label and store in a cool place.

Materials Required

Fruit extract, cane sugar, potable water, essence, citric acid, colours, preservatives, weighing balance, glass jars (500 ml capacity), jar closures, hand refractometer, steel pan, ladle etc.

Procedure for Jelly

    1.    Select sound and fresh fruits, free from any blemishes. Generally a mixture of ripe and unripe fruits shouldbe taken as the ripe fruits impart good flavour and the unripe fruits are rich in pectin, required for a good set.
    2.    Wash the fruits thoroughly. Cut into 4-8 pieces depending upon the fruit and size
    3.    Boil the fruit pieces in water (about ½ to an equal weight of fruits for fruits like apple and 2-3 times the weight of sliced fruits in case of citrus fruits) for about 30 min. with occasional stirring. Strain the boiled mixture through coarse muslin cloth to get a clear pectin extract
    4.    A second extract may also be taken by boiling the same mass again and straining.
    5.    Add sugar (usually 3/4th to one part of the extract or in 45:55 ratio) to the pectin extract and boil in a stainless steel pan. Add required quantities of acid towards the end of boiling.
    6.    Remove the scum rising on the top of boiling mass occasionally.
    7.    To avoid charring, occasional stirring is also done.
    8.    To avoid destruction of pectin the cooking should be completed fast
    9.    Determine the end point of jelly as detailed ahead.
    10.    Fill in hot dry glass jars and cool rapidly
    11.    Pour a thin layer of hot molten paraffin wax seal to avoid moulding.   
    12.    Label and store in a cool place.

Materials Required

Lime fruits, green chillies, ginger salt (common), stainless steel pans, kinives, weighing balance, spices etc. 

Procedure

    1.    Select sound and mature fruits of lime, mature but green chillies having good size and ginger rhizomes.
    2.    Wash the lime fruits, ginger and chillies properly in running cold water.
    3.    Cut the lime fruits into pieces / halves. 
    4.    Remove the stalks of the chillies and cut into longitudinal slices. Peel ginger and cut into long thin slices.
    5.    Put the lime pieces, chilli and ginger slices in a wide mouthed pre-sterilized glass jar 
    6.    Add common salt @ 250g / Kg of material.
    7.    Squeeze some of the juice over the slices
    8.    Stir the mass well mixing thoroughly
    9.    In case the juice does not cover the material completely, add pre-boiled and cooled 5% solution of citric acid.
    10.    Keep the jar in Sun for about a week with occasional shaking of the material.
    11.    When the lime pieces start turning light brown, the pickle is ready for consumption.

Materials Required

Dehydrator, balance, thermometer, sulphur dioxide, blanching pan, fruits / vegetables, polythene or aluminium bags.

Procedure

    1.    Select sound fruits or vegetables 
    2.    Record their initial weight and wash them properly in plain water to remove any dirt or extraneous matter. 
    3.    Peel with stainless steel knife (as the case may be) and cut into thin uniform pieces or slices of  0.2-0.5 mm thickness
    4.    Blanch the slices in boiling water for 1-2 min. to inactivate the enzymes followed by immediate cooling.
    5.    Treat the slices with sulphur (sulphuring or sulphiting) in order to prevent darkening of the product during drying. 
    6.    Dry the slices in a mechanical air dehydrator at about 55 + 5oC temperature.
    7.    Record the weight of the product after every 2 hr till it becomes (almost) constant i.e. when there no more (significant) loss of moisture from the product.
    8.    Pack the product in ploythene or aluminium laminated pouches and seal them air tight. 
    9.    If it is to be converted into powder, the dried product can be ground in a grinder before packing.
    10.    Label the packages and store them in a cool dry place.
    11.    Plot the drying rate curve of the product on a graph paper and analyse it.
    12.    Record the initial and final moisture content of the product (as discussed in Exercise No. 19).