eChapters

A Literature Review is a systematic and comprehensive analysis of books, articles and research papers to a specific topic providing a base of knowledge on the topic. Literature reviews are designed to identify and critique the existing literature on a topic to justify your research by exposing gaps in current research. This investigation should provide a description, summary, and critical evaluation of works related to the research problem and should also add to the overall knowledge of the topic as well as demonstrating how your research will fit within a larger field of study. A literature review should offer critical analysis of the current research on a topic and that analysis should direct your research objective. This should not be confused with a book review or an annotated bibliography both research tools but very different in purpose and scope. Key to a good Literature Review is to document your process.

Migration shows the trends of social changes. From the historical viewpoint during the process of industrialisation and economic development, people migrate from farms to industries, from villages to cities, from one city to another and from one country to another. In modern times, technological changes are taking place in Asia, Africa and Latin America due to which these regions are witnessing large-scale migration from rural to urban areas.

Economists are interested in the study of migration because migration affects the supply of skilled and semi-skilled labourers, development of industries and commerce causing changes in the employment structure of the migrated people. Formulation of economic policies has a close relation with the process of migration because migration affects the economic and social development of a country.

Human migration involves the movement of people from one place to another with intentions of settling, permanently or temporarily, at a new geographical location. The movement often occurs over long distances and from one country to another, but internal migration, within a single country, is also possible; indeed, this is the dominant form of human migration globally. Migration is often associated with better human capital at both individual and household level, and with better access to migration networks. Age is also important for both work and non-work migration. People may migrate as individuals, in family units or in large groups. There are four major forms of migration: invasion, conquest, colonization and emigration/immigration.

Persons moving from their home due to forced displacement, such as a natural disaster or civil disturbance, may be described as displaced persons or, if remaining in the home country, internally-displaced persons. A person who seeks refuge in another country can, if the reason for Annual Net Migration Rate 2015–2020. Prediction by UN in 2019.leaving the home country is political, religious, or another form of persecution, make a formal application to that country where refuge is sought and is then usually described as an asylum seeker. If this application is successful this person's legal status becomes that of a refugee.

The contribution of dairy sector in the Indian economy has tremendous impact on the country’s GDP. India being the world’s highest milk producing country, dairy industry has a major role in changing the twin problem of the nation that is poverty and unemployment. Dairy sector also involves the under privileged group, especially the dairy farm women. There are many success stories regarding the life changing experiences gained by the farm women, who had taken dairy farming as a means to sustain their livelihood. In the area of gender equality, dairy sector has proved to be a women centric enterprise. Most of the activities pertaining to dairy farming are mostly carried out by the farm women. The dairy farming activities carried out by the farm women are tedious and in major cases their contribution remains unnoticed. They are usually carrying out activities, where most of their energy is drained, resulting in drudgery. Matters related to decision making, their opinion about adopting new technologies, starting an enterprise are not given importance by their family members. This leads to a greater setback in the emergence of success of dairy sector. Therefore, empowerment of farm women in dairy sector is one of the important criteria for the dairy industry to reach a greater height and for overall development of nation.

This chapter presents the analysis, interpretation and discussion of the collected data from the study area in an effort to attain the objective of the study. The data collected were analyzed with appropriate statistical test and presented in a systematic format.

The results of the study are presented under the following subheadings:

4.1 Distribution of respondents according to different socio-economic variables

Basic information of the respondents under the study has been given according to the socio-economic characteristic of the respondents. Variables like age, education, marital status, family size, family type, milk production per day, social status, farming experience, herd size, land holding and annual income are presented in the following table 4.1

Research methodology gives detailed justification about the research methods and procedures carried out in the present study. The present study focuses on the women’s involvement in the dairy farming and their empowerment. Keeping in view the specific objectives of the study and various aspects relating to these objectives the methodological framework has been formulated. The sub topic under the research methodology is as follow:

3.1 Locale of the study

The present study entitled “Retrospective Multidimensional Study on Magnitude of Participation of Women in Dairy Farming in East district of Sikkim” was carried out in the villages of East district of Sikkim. Sikkim is the second smallest states in India, with an area of 7,096 sq. km in size. The meaning of Sikkim is “The valley of rice”. It lies between 27 º33' 00" N and 88 º30' 00" E. The average annual temperature of the state is 18 ºC (64 ºF) and annual rainfall is 2739 mm. The state is situated in the Eastern Himalayas and it shares its border with countries like Tibet, Nepal and Bhutan. Mt Kanchendzonga (8585m) which is the third highest peak in the world is situated at Sikkim. According to 2011 census, population of state was 610,577 with male population of 323,070 and female population of 287,507. The literacy rate in the state is 81.40 percent. The density of the state is 86 people per km2 (Census,2011). The cattle population in the state was 264,860 in number (BAHS,2019). The state has four district- East, West, North, and South (Registrar General of India, 1989).

Research being a continuous process for a scientific study, previous study provides basis for the research. The review of literature is necessary for developing conceptual frame work and suitable design for the study. It assists the researcher to keep his work going in right direction. The available literature related to the present study has been reviewed under the following heading:

2.1 Differential role accomplished by women dairy farmers from different social strata

Toppo et al. (2004) examined the participation of women farmers in dairy occupation in Anand district of Gujarat and their result revealed that 18.34 percent of the farm women were mostly engaged in activities related to artificial insemination, majority of the respondent (68.34%) participated in cleaning of the shed, while 25.00 percent of the farm women practised manure preparation and 95.00 percent of the respondent were not involved in preparation of gobar gas mixture.

Badole (2006) reported that majority of the responded had low socio-economic status.

India is one of the most populous country in the world with a population of 1.26 billion (Census,2011). Of which women constitute about 49 percent of the population. Women act as a significant factor in development of the nation. Women from all sphere of life are contributing meaningly towards the prosperity of the nation. Especially, the rural farm women who constitute nearly half of the total rural population. The rural women are the mainstay of Indian agriculture. Their contribution towards agriculture development is worthy of praises. They are capable of accomplishing sustainable development in all the various activities which they have carried out and shown interest. Women are the essential part of society. For a society to develop, women should be given equal importance as the male counterpart. Nurturing of society is possible only if women are nurtured with equivalent opportunities and progress. Indian society is still male dominant, which accounts for low reputation of women. Women are treated as less competent human being. Through passing of time there have been acknowledgement by the Constitution of India on the part of importance of women as a productive humane resource for development of nation. Many measures have been adopted for the gender equality. This paved the way for advancement of empowerment of women.

The chapter focuses on presenting the outcomes and analysis of the research, aiming to offer ample information for reaching accurate conclusions. Within this chapter, tables and models are frequently employed to reinforce the textual content. The discussion section plays a crucial role in interpreting the research results appropriately and establishing connections with other pertinent studies.

The distribution characteristics of the variable Age (x1 ) reveals that the respondents’ ages range from a minimum of 27 to a maximum of 71. The average age is 48.675, suggesting that the majority of respondents fall into the middle-age category. The standard deviation is 11.574, indicating the degree of variability in the ages. Furthermore, the coefficient of variance (CV) is 23.779 percent, indicating a high level of consistency in the distribution pattern of the variable.

The distribution pattern of the variable Family size (x3 ) shows that the family size ranges from a minimum person of 3 to a maximum of 10 persons. The average family size is 10.125 persons. The standard deviation is 1.397. The coefficient of variance (CV) is 23.882 percent which indicates a high level of consistency in the distribution pattern of the variable.

Research methodology is the process of planning and executing a research study, including defining the research questions, selecting appropriate research design, data collection, analysis, and interpretation. The methodology is a blueprint of the research study that guides the researcher through each step of the research process. The research methodology is essential to ensure the validity, reliability, and generalization of the study.

This chapter provides an in-depth explanation of the research methodology used in the research. The purpose of this chapter is providing a clear understanding of the methods, techniques, and concepts used to design, implement, and analyse the research study. By understanding the methodology, readers can evaluate the reliability and validity of the study results.

The chapter is divided into several sub-headings for easy understanding of the methodology used:

• Research locale

• Sampling design

• Pilot study

• Variables and their measurements

The research locale is a crucial aspect of any research study because it can have a significant impact on the data collected, the results obtained, and the conclusions drawn from the research. The selection of the research locale should be based on the research questions, objectives, and methodology of the study. The characteristics of the research locale such as its physical, social, cultural, and economic attributes, and the population being studied, can affect the research outcomes.

To accurately understand and interpret the data, used in social science research, it is necessary to have a thorough understanding of the attitude, behaviour and characteristics of the individuals who live in the area being studied. This section of the research critically examines the socio-demographic background of local people in a rural setting. The research setting refers to the context in which the research is conducted, and it plays a crucial role in shaping the interplay of different factors and components that influence the study’s outcomes. The research setting is essential because it provides a contextual framework that helps to inform the researcher’s interpretation of the data. By understanding the characteristics and context of the research area, the researcher can more accurately conceptualize and interpret the data, leading to a more nuanced understanding of the implications and behavioural complexities of the individual and the larger community.

This chapter focuses on key terms and their associated concepts that are crucial for effectively communicating the ideas of the study. It also establishes a theoretical orientation for the empirical investigation and provides guidance for selecting appropriate predictor variables that are relevant to the research.

The scholastic and theoretical exercise referred to in the statement related to the intellectual and academic process involved in conducting research. It involves delving into existing literature, theories, and concepts related to the research topic, as well as formulating new ideas and theories based on the researcher’s understanding and analysis.

One of the key outcomes of this exercise is the development of an operational definition. An operational definition is a clear and concise description of how a specific concept or variable will be measured or observed in the research study. It provides a framework for understanding and interpreting the data collected during the research process.

Furthermore, the pursuit of knowledge is an essential aspect of the research process. Researchers engage in a systematic exploration and investigation of the research topic, seeking to expand the existing knowledge base and contribute new insights to the field. This pursuit of knowledge involves critically analyzing existing theories, synthesizing information, and generating new ideas and theories through the research process. The theory that is developed as a result of this exercise is constructed in alignment with the set of objectives and research designs established at the beginning of the research project. The theory serves as a framework that guides the research process and helps to organize and interpret the data collected. It is important for the theory to be congruent with the research objectives to ensure the research study is focused and relevant to its intended goals.

The Review of literature is a critical summary of published academic research and other sources on a particular topic or research question. It involves identifying, analyzing, and synthesizing relevant research studies, books, articles, and other sources to provide a comprehensive overview of what is known and not known about the topic.

A good review of literature should be well-structured, focused, and provide a balanced and objective analysis of the existing literature. The following are the key elements of a literature review:

1. Introduction: The introduction should provide background information on the topic and highlight the importance of the research question.

2. Search Strategy: The search strategy should outline the databases and search terms used to identify relevant literature.

3. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria: The inclusion and exclusion criteria should be clearly defined to ensure that only relevant studies are included in the review.

Any perturbation and chaos in ecological setting and its functioning will lead to serious disruptions disruption in both resilience and livelihood. This is exactly what is being confronted by Indian Agriculture upfront. Our soils are brutally extorted to accept the harsh reality that close to 70 per cent of our cultivable land is starving of organic carbon. The ground water depletion in the name of modern agriculture has been another testimony of our ruthlessly prodigal agriculture amounting to serious water crisis. Every five seconds equivalent to a football ground, the golden acres, are vanishing with fertile soil from the chest of the planet. Thus, soil erosion amounting to almost 15 tons per hectare per year in Indian agriculture is not only alarming but also humongous. The losses of biodiversities including floral and faunal counts are adding blistering blistering barrier for our food production system. In the name of green revolution, we turned wrongly illusioned with the ability of so called high yielding varieties and have driven out our valuable landraces to invite gene myopia and gene erosion. This has got a catastrophic consequence. The stagnation of production and productivity in food sector is going to be the bleak indicator of our fragile and frail ecological resilience in the entire production system. But the down to earth reality is that apart from experts, most of our farmers are not aware of this threat, sensitized either. The book has assimilated the data in a delving manner, and real time fact of ground reality that reveals an interesting interpretation of farmers' perception on the rhetoric’s of ecological resilience in India.

Resource Conservation Technologies are essential for addressing environmental challenges, reducing resource depletion, and achieving sustainability goals. By efficiently managing and preserving these resources, we can minimize negative impacts on the environment, reduce costs, and ensure that these resources are available for future generations.

Resource Conservation Technologies (RCT) are practices, methods, and technologies used in various industries, primarily in agriculture and natural resource management, to efficiently and sustainably utilize and preserve valuable resources such as water, soil, energy, and biodiversity. These technologies aim to reduce waste, minimize environmental impact, and enhance the overall productivity and sustainability of resource-dependent activities. Here are some key aspects of resource conservation technologies:

Water Conservation Technologies: RCTs for water conservation focus on efficient water use in agriculture, industrial processes, and domestic settings. Examples include drip irrigation, rainwater harvesting, and the use of sensors to optimize water application.

Soil conservation is the practice of preventing soil erosion, degradation, and loss while promoting sustainable land use and agriculture. It is crucial for maintaining the health and productivity of soils, which in turn supports agriculture, ecosystems, and human well-being. Here is a detailed explanation of soil conservation:

1. Erosion Control

Contour Farming: Plowing, planting, and harvesting crops along the contour lines of the land, which reduces water runoff and erosion.

Terracing: Creating level platforms with short, horizontal ridges, which reduce water runoff and erosion on steep slopes.

Windbreaks: Planting trees and shrubs in rows to act as wind barriers, reducing wind erosion.

Cover Crops: Planting cover crops in between main crops to protect the soil from erosion, improve soil structure, and fix nitrogen.

Soil : Soil is a complex and vital natural resource that plays a crucial role in supporting plant life and providing the basis for agriculture. There are many different types of soil, each with its unique characteristics and properties.

Types of Soil: Sandy soil has large particles and does not retain water well

Loamy Soil: A balanced mixture of sand, silt, and clay, considered ideal for plant growth.

Clay soil has tiny particles and holds water tightly, which can lead to poor drainage.

Silt Soil: Silt soil has intermediate-sized particles and retains water well.

Peat Soil: Peat soil is composed of partially decomposed organic matter and can hold a lot of water.

Chalky or Calcareous Soil: Chalky soil contains high levels of calcium carbonate, which can make it alkaline.

Pumps play a critical role in irrigation systems by providing the necessary force to move water from its source (such as a well, river, or reservoir) to the f ields where crops are grown. The selection and proper operation of irrigation pumps are crucial for the efficiency and success of agricultural practices. Here’s a detailed overview of pumps used in irrigation:

Types of Irrigation Pumps

Centrifugal Pumps

Principle of Operation: Centrifugal pumps are the most common type used in irrigation. They work by converting mechanical energy into kinetic energy in the form of fluid flow. Water enters the pump through the center (eye) of a rotating impeller and is accelerated outward.

A drainage system is a network of structures, channels, pipes, and natural features designed to manage and control the flow of water, primarily rainwater or surface runoff, away from inhabited areas, agricultural land, and infrastructure. The primary purpose of a drainage system is to prevent flooding, erosion, and water logging, thereby safeguarding public health and property, as well as ensuring the efficient use of land.

Surface Water Management: Surface water, which includes rainfall and other forms of precipitation, needs to be managed effectively to prevent damage to properties and the environment. Drainage systems collect this water and direct it away from vulnerable areas.

Catchments: A catchment or watershed is the area of land where rainwater collects and drains into a specific river, lake, or other water body. Understanding catchment areas is crucial in designing drainage systems because it helps determine how much water needs to be managed.

Introduction

Irrigation is the artificial application of water to soil or land to assist in the growth of crops, vegetation, or landscaping. It is a crucial agricultural practice used to supplement natural rainfall and provide controlled and consistent moisture to plants when needed. Irrigation systems can vary in complexity, from simple methods like watering cans and hoses to more advanced systems like drip irrigation, sprinklers, and flood irrigation.

The primary purpose of irrigation is to ensure that plants receive an adequate and consistent supply of water, especially in regions with insufficient or irregular rainfall. This helps promote healthy plant growth, increase crop yields, and prevent drought-related crop damage. Irrigation is not only used in agriculture but also for landscape maintenance, recreational fields, and other applications where controlled watering is essential.

Farm electricity refers to the electrical systems and infrastructure used in agricultural operations to power various equipment, machinery, and facilities. The electrification of farms has become essential for modern agriculture, enhancing efficiency, productivity, and the overall management of farming operations. Description about the farm electricity:

Components of Farm Electricity

Power Supply: Farms are typically connected to the electrical grid, providing a reliable power supply. In some remote areas, farms may rely on off-grid solutions, such as diesel generators, solar panels, or wind turbines.

Power Distribution: Electricity is distributed across the farm through a network of power lines, transformers, and distribution panels. The distribution system ensures that power is delivered to various farm structures and equipment.

Ergonomics, also known as human factors engineering, is a multidisciplinary f ield that focuses on designing and arranging environments, products, and systems to fit the people who use them. The primary goal of ergonomics is to enhance efficiency, safety, and well-being by optimizing the interaction between humans and their work environment.

Key Aspects of Ergonomics

Physical Ergonomics

Posture : Examining how people sit, stand, and move to prevent musculoskeletal disorders and discomfort.

Repetitive Motion: Addressing issues related to tasks that involve repetitive movements, which can lead to strain injuries.

Agricultural processing, often referred to as agro-processing, is the transformation of raw agricultural materials into products that are suitable for consumption or further manufacturing. This process adds value to agricultural products, enabling them to be stored, distributed, and marketed more effectively.

Agricultural Processing can Involve a Range of Activities, Including

Cleaning and sorting: Removing impurities, dirt, and unwanted materials from the raw agricultural produce.

Grading and quality control: Sorting products based on size, shape, and quality to ensure consistency and meet market standards.

Preservation and storage: Using various methods such as drying, freezing, canning, and refrigeration to extend the shelf life of perishable agricultural products.

Horticulture involves the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, herbs, sprouts, mushrooms, algae, flowers, seaweeds, non-food crops such as grass and ornamental trees and plants. Various agricultural implements and tools are used in horticulture to facilitate the cultivation, care, and harvesting of these crops. Some common implements and tools used in horticulture:

Hand Tools

Pruning Shears/Secateurs: Used for cutting and shaping plants by removing unwanted branches or stems.

Hand Trowel: Small handheld tool used for digging, planting, and transplanting.

Pruning Saw: Used for cutting larger branches or stems.

Harvesting is the process of gathering mature crops from the fields. The timing of the harvest is crucial, as it directly affects the quality and yield of the crop.

Here are Some key Aspects Related to Harvesting Crops

Maturity: Crops need to be harvested when they reach their optimal level of maturity. This varies depending on the type of crop. For example, fruits and vegetables are usually harvested when they are fully ripened, while grains are typically harvested when they reach physiological maturity but before they start to shatter or lose quality.

Methods of Harvesting

Manual Harvesting: In some cases, crops are still harvested by hand. This is common for fruits, vegetables, and certain grains. Manual harvesting requires a significant amount of labor but is often necessary for delicate crops.

Plant protection equipment, often referred to as PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) for agricultural or horticultural activities, includes various gear and clothing designed to protect individuals from potential hazards while working with plants, pesticides, or other agricultural materials. These items are crucial to ensure the safety and well-being of workers in the agricultural and horticultural industries. Common types of plant protection equipment:

1. Protective Clothing

Coveralls or suits to shield the body from pesticides, chemicals, and other substances.

Long-sleeved shirts and pants to minimize skin exposure.

Gloves to protect the hands from contact with pesticides, thorns, or other hazards.Safety goggles or face shields to safeguard the eyes.

2. Footwear Sturdy,

closed-toe boots or shoes to protect the feet from potential injuries and exposure to pesticides and plant debris.

Seeding /Sowing

Seeding is the process of planting seeds in soil to grow crops, plants, or grass. It is a fundamental step in the cultivation of plants and is essential for agricultural production, landscaping, and reforestation. The goal of seeding is to establish and promote the growth of desirable plants, allowing them to germinate, develop, and eventually mature into a full-grown plant, tree, or crop.

The process of seeding typically involves placing seeds at a specific depth in the soil, providing the necessary conditions for germination (such as water, light, and temperature), and ensuring proper spacing between seeds to allow for healthy plant growth. The choice of seeding method and the timing of seeding can vary depending on the type of plant or crop being grown and the specific environmental conditions of the planting area.

Seeding can be done manually by hand; using specialized seeding tools and equipment, or through mechanized methods, such as using tractors and seed drills for larger agricultural operations. The success of seeding is crucial for the establishment of healthy and productive plants, making it a critical step in agriculture and horticulture.

Tillage is a common agricultural practice that involves preparing the soil for planting crops. It is the manipulation of soil to create a suitable seedbed, manage weeds, and improve soil structure for optimal crop growth. Tillage methods can vary widely and are often classified into different types based on their intensity and purpose. Here are some common types of tillage:

1. Conventional Tillage: This is the most intensive form of tillage and involves turning over the soil completely, often using a plow. It disrupts the natural soil structure and exposes the soil to erosion but can effectively control weeds and prepare a clean seedbed.

2. Reduced Tillage: Also known as conservation tillage, this method aims to disturb the soil as little as possible. It typically involves minimal or no plowing and relies on techniques like no-till, strip-till, or zone-till. Reduced tillage helps to maintain soil structure and reduce erosion while conserving moisture.

3. No-Till: In this approach, the soil is left undisturbed, with crop residues from previous harvests left on the field surface. A planter creates small openings in the soil for seeds. No-till farming helps retain moisture, reduce erosion, and maintain soil health. It is widely adopted for its conservation benefits.

A farm tractor is a versatile, heavy-duty agricultural vehicle designed to perform a wide range of tasks on the farm. Tractors are a cornerstone of modern agriculture, and they come in various sizes, power ranges, and configurations to meet the diverse needs of farmers and agricultural operations. Tractors are used for tasks like plowing, planting, cultivating, harvesting, and transporting goods on the farm. They are indispensable tools that have greatly increased the efficiency and productivity of agriculture.

The choice of tractor type depends on the specific needs of the farm, the type of crops grown, the terrain, and the available budget. Farm tractors continue to evolve with technological advancements, incorporating features such as GPS guidance, advanced hydraulics, and climate-controlled cabs to enhance efficiency and operator comfort.

Farm Mechanization refers to the use of various mechanical, electrical, and hydraulic equipment and technologies in agriculture to perform tasks that were traditionally done by hand or with animal power. These machines and tools are designed to make farming operations more efficient, productive, and cost effective. Farm mechanization encompasses a wide range of equipment, from tractors and plows to harvesters and irrigation systems.

It’s important to note that while farm mechanization offers numerous benefits, it also presents challenges, such as the initial cost of machinery, the need for maintenance and technical knowledge, and concerns about the displacement of rural labor. As a result, the adoption of mechanization in agriculture varies widely by region and type of farming operation

Present Status of farm Mechanization in India

In India, farm mechanization has been a key focus for increasing agricultural productivity and reducing labor-intensive farming practices. Here are some key points on the status of farm mechanization in India:

1. Government Initiatives: The Indian government, through various agencies, has been promoting and supporting the adoption of farm mechanization. Schemes such as the “Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanization” (SMAM) have been launched to provide subsidies and f inancial incentives to farmers for purchasing agricultural machinery and equipment.

7.1. Summary

The present research had been carried out to study the social ecology of arsenic contamination in groundwater; factors, perception and impact on life and livelihood of the selected village of West Bengal and in the end the comparison is made. The study had been conducted at village Mitrapur in the Haringhata block of West Bengal. A pilot study was conducted to understand the area, its people, institution, communication and extension system of these states.

An exhaustive list of respondents was prepared critically with the help of some villagers. From the list, 70 respondents from the village were selected for the study through a non-random snowball sampling method. The primary data were collected with the help of a structured interview schedule by following the personal interview method. The secondary data were collected from our departmental library, internet, Department of Agriculture, West Bengal, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya etc. for establishing the conceptual framework of the study.

Three types of Issues are Covered in this Study

• The influence of social, cultural, and/or economic variables on how drinking water poisoned with arsenic affects people’s life, notably their health (for example socio-economic patterns of illness and social),

• Social factors influencing people’s response: especially in relation to other priorities, perceptions of arsenic, and social roles and relationships.

This chapter deals with the findings of the study along with the discussion based on the analysis. This study tried to represent its findings as per the objectives of the study. At the end of this chapter, interrelation has been made, an explanation has been tried to put out down and an attempt has been done to reveal the cause behind it. The results and their pertaining discussion are presented according to the specific objectives of the study.

Research methodology is a way of explaining how a researcher intends to carry out their research. It’s a logical, systematic plan to resolve a research problem. A methodology details a researcher’s approach to the research to ensure reliable, valid results that address their aims and objectives. It encompasses what data they’re going to collect and where from, as well as how it’s being collected and analyzed. The deliberation on the methodology has been made to understand the concept, methods and techniques which are utilized to design the study, collection of information, analysis of data and interpretation of the f indings for the revelation of truths and formulation of theories. This chapter deals with the method and procedure used in the study and consists of eight main parts

• Locale of research

• Pilot study.

• Sampling Design.

• Empirical measurement of the Independent and Dependent variable

• Preparation of interview Schedule.

The research setting is an important component of the research methodology. Research setting refers to the detailed information of an area where the study was conducted. The research setting can be seen as the physical, social, and cultural site in which the researcher conducts the study. In qualitative research, the participants are observed in their natural environments with a primary focus on meaning-making. The study area generally consists of a particular geographical area viz. a state, district, block, or gram panchayat area selected according to the benefit of the investigator who possesses adequate knowledge regarding the location, communication facility, the period of study, the availability of resources, etc. of the locality so that he can easily approach every corner of the area for data collection. Additionally, to comprehend people’s knowledge, attitudes, and behaviour more easily, investigators must have a fundamental understanding of their socio-demographic backgrounds. It is the environment within which studies are run that has important consequences for experimental design, the type of data that can be collected and the interpretation of results.

Arsenic contamination of groundwater is a form of groundwater pollution that is often due to naturally occurring high concentrations of arsenic in deeper levels of groundwater. The Ganges Delta’s usage of deep tube wells for water delivery has raised awareness of the issue because it has led to widespread arsenic poisoning in significant numbers of people. During the weathering of rocks and minerals, which is followed by subsequent leaching and runoff, arsenic (As) is released into the soil and groundwater. Additionally, anthropogenic sources can transfer it into the soil and groundwater. Six West Bengal districts with a combined area of 34000 km2 and a population of 30 million have been determined to have groundwater levels of arsenic over the WHO maximum allowable limit of 0.05 mg l1. (Alam et al.,2002)

At present, 37 administrative blocks by the side of the river Ganga and adjoining areas are affected. Areas affected by arsenic contamination in groundwater are all located in the upper delta plain and are mostly in the abandoned meander belt. More than 800 000 people from 312 villages/wards are drinking arsenic-contaminated water and amongst them, at least 175 000 people show arsenical skin lesions. Thousands of tube well water in these six districts have been analysed for arsenic species. Hair, nails, scales, urine, and liver tissue analyses show elevated concentrations of arsenic in people drinking arsenic-contaminated water for a longer period. Arsenic comes from a geological source. Only a few soil strata have high arsenic contents, which are determined to be linked to iron-pyrites according to investigations of bore hole silt. Arsenical skin lesions in various areas cause a variety of societal issues. (Das et al.,1996)

Arsenic contamination is one of the serious concerns for public health throughout the world. During the weathering of rocks and minerals, which are followed by subsequent leaching and runoff, arsenic (As) is released into the soil and groundwater. Additionally, human sources can transfer it into the soil and groundwater. Depending on the geological settings, geochemistry, and geo-environmental conditions of an aquifer, different aquifers may have different adsorption and desorption processes, arsenic species, Eh, pH, solid phase dissolutions, and precipitations. Therefore, rigorous geochemical investigation for an adequate understanding of arsenic geochemistry under different hydrogeological and geo-environmental conditions of aquifers is essentially required for evolving sustainable solutions. All of the arsenic affected river plains have river routes originated from the Himalayan region. Arsenic in groundwater contamination has far-reaching consequences including its ingestion through the food chain, which are in the form of social disorders, health hazards and socioeconomic dissolution besides its sprawling movement, and exploitation of groundwater. Food crops produced with arsenic tainted water are marketed to other locations, including areas where people may eat the tainted food and be exposed to arsenic. The arsenic contamination of groundwater is a form of groundwater pollution which is due to naturally occurring high concentrations of arsenic in deeper levels of groundwater.

Introduction

A number of experts have recognised three different stages in the march of man on the earth. These consist of: (i) When the civilization is dominated by the forests, (ii) When the civilization is overcoming the forest and (iii) When the civilization is dominating obstacles caused by forests. Now a days, Indian Himalayas including that of Jammu and Kashmir is passing through the third stage i.e., to the point of destroying itself in the process.

Deforestation’s relentless march is stripping the Jammu and Kashmir Himalayas bare of its forest cover. From the majestic coniferous forests of Pir Panjal Himalayas to the deciduous and mixed canopy of subtropical forests the story is tragically the same i.e.. the indiscriminate destruction of forests that could turn the state into vast and inhospitable waste land. Hence to sustain and prosper the civilization, the forests must be saved from being further destroyed.

To reduce or to minimize the deforestation, the Social Forestry Project and Agroforestry System came to fore. The primary objective of Social Forestry is to increase supplies of fuel wood and fodder in rural area through plantation on community waste lands, degraded forest lands and on private lands through farm forestry (Patnaik, 1995-96). The latter i.e., Agroforestry is now much more widely used subject than the mere production of wood and food. In the changing scenario of the environmental degradation and ecological imbalance as a result of degradation of the forest resources of the country, agroforestry consists of inviting the prime attention of forests for upliftment of both environment and ecology vis-a-vis to enhance agricultural/horticultural and livestock production. In fact, agroforestry came as a new’ name during the year 1978. Since then, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi, has developed a vast network of agroforestry in all 36 centres of Agroclimatic Zones (Tejwani, 2008). However, Dr Tejwani started working with agroforestry during 1957 on fodder fuel plantations and trees on farm boundaries. Hence, agroforestry must be included in the agriculture.

Introduction

Since 2001, India’s human beings population has crossed 1000 million, which is presently 1361 million and will became more than 1462 million during 2025. Such a large population of human beings can be fed and clothed only if we make the best use of the country’s land and water resources. While water is replenishable natural resource. Contrary to this, the land is a non-renewable and irreplaceable resource. It, therefore, becomes an imperative to think of about the main problems of protecting/preserving and managing the land resources f irst of all and thereafter managing the water resources. Such an approach will, infant, prove a solution of both of these resources. It is because if the land of the country is looked after properly, the problem of water management would be automatically tackled (Singh, 2007)

Out of the total land area of India, about 329 million hectares (m ha) as many as175 m ha suffer from degradation, caused for the most part by the soil erosion, water logging, soil salinity and sodicity as well as acidity. This denotes that on an average at least two out of every 3 acres (1.2 ha) of land is in poor condition. It is also known that at least half of the sick land i.e., one third of the total is almost completely unproductive. Another one third is partially productive and it is only the remaining one third is in good health.

Introduction

The Indian literature viz; Vedas and other related books show that ancient Indians used to impart great significance to the gardens and parks. Indian rulers especially, the kings, the princess vis-a-vis affluent people took special interest in making vegetable gardens in the houses and fruit tree gardens in open areas. In those days, it was considered to be the foremost duty of a king to maintain the beautiful gardens in the city and around his palace. It is even said that only he should be revered as an ideal king whose abode is provided with spacious gardens having full of fruit bearing trees (Krishna murthy 2012). As a matter of fact, the gardens also contained pools and tanks adorned with beautiful lotus blossoms, having a number of plants and bushes laden with large number of fragrant flowers etc. Kautilya has included gardens and fields under the term of “Vastu”. So Vastu Sastra or the science of habitation may be taken to stand for laying out of gardens etc; including both horticulture and agriculture.

Pulses are an important source of proteins. One hundred grams of pulses contain about 25-32 grams of proteins and several amino acids which are not made by the human body (Sidhu, 2015). These are the staple food both for vegetarians and non-vegetarians of the country. India is not only the largest consumer of the pulses in the world but it is also the largest producer and importer. The global production of pulses is about 70 million tonnes, of which India’s share is around 25 percent.

The consumption of pulses is historically part and parcel of Indian culture. However, over a period of time, the availability of pulses has declined from69 gram per capita per day in 1961 to 51 gram in 1971 and 38grams in 1981. Marginally it arose to 42 gram in 1991 which already declined to 30 gram in 2001. The National Food Security Mission (NFSM) was started by the union Government for pulses during 2007. It did not result in a significant increase in the output because pulses are grown only in 16 per cent area which is irrigated. The area under cultivation for pulses varied from 23 million hectare in 2009- 2010 and 26 million hectares 2021-2022 and production was14.6 mt. to 28.9 mt. At present the availability of pulses is about 42 g per capita per day.

Rose (Rosa centifolia Linn) belongs to the family Rosaceae is known as flower of love which is cultivated throughout the world. The traditionally grown rose f lowers are fragile wild, bloom only for a limited period. They are found in a few colours of red, pink, deep crimson vis-a-vis white colour. However, with the development of the clonal technology, tissue culture and hybridization, a wide variety of roses can be grown having different colours, fragrances, blooms and shapes. It is point to mention that from the 200 species of roses originally found there are more than 30,000 varieties available these days.

The cultivation of rose is believed to have started about 5.000 years ago in China. Initially, Romans started to cultivate the rose flower using organic manures for medicinal purposes and then tor aesthetic values. Briefly their medicinal values have been mentioned separately as reported by Gupta et al 2016. It is not until late 8th century that cultivation of roses was introduced into Europe. Unlike Europe and America where rosses have limited flowering period during the summer.

Agriculture is the main stay of Indian economy as more than 70 per cent of the people of India are dependent upon this avocation and allied disciplines for their livelihood. Even today, at the dawn of 21st century, the Indian agriculture has continued to be the backbone of our national economy, representing country’s one third of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Thus, farming families consisting of men, women, boys and girls known as the pillars of our agriculture, constitute backbone of the nation. The support and contributions made by the rural women in agriculture, constituting 55-66 percent of farm work force (Singh et al., 2012) are, however, not less than those performed by the men, and therefore they become spine of the rural economy. In fact, women’s role in the economy has been underestimated and their work in agriculture has long been invisible and unappreciated, if we compare the women’s work participation rate of some of the selected countries like Indonesia, Bangladesh, China. Pakistan and Sri Lanka, we find that India ranks second in position (22.7 %) after Indonesia (33.4%).

In India, Mahatma Gandhi known as father of the Nation, deserves for imparting credit as pioneer for organic agriculture by way of promoting farmyard manure, compost and advocating use of night soil to enhance the soil fertility and thereby, crop productivity. Organic agriculture possesses lot of advantages over conventional agriculture, especially in areas having low rainfall and showing low soil fertility (Yadav, 2010). Although APEDA (Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority) as an apex body which is working to promote the export of organic food commodities. However, lack of adequate certification facilities and the trainings organized, markets for organic foods inadequate, political and scientific will power are some of the hindrances for operating organic agriculture in India. As human and natural resources are readily available in our country, so there is good scope for organic agriculture farming including organic animal husbandry by adopting proper organic agriculture policies.

Medicinal and aromatic plants constitute a precious resource for mankind. Since time immemorial these plants have been put to medicinal use by Hakims, Vaidas, Ayurvedic practioners and of course the common man (Gupta et al. 2016). It is because these plants possess a lot of qualities for curing the most common or dreaded diseases without any side effects (Gupta et al. 2016). Unfortunately, with the onslaught of human population explosion, industrialization, fertilization and deforestation, the rich medicinal plants wealth has suffered a massive damage. A large number of medicinal plants are now at the verge of extinction which requires their preservation.

India which stands blessed well vast medicinal plants diversity is estimated to have about 30,000 different plant species world over having accepted medicinal value in Ayurveda, Unani, Homeopathy, Allopathy, Tibetan etc. In fact, out of the 18 hot spots in the world with regard to occurrence of medicinal plants two are confined to India. These two hot spots are represented by the Eastern and the North western Himalayas, and the western Ghats with very high degree of endemism. These are indeed the treasure house of about 30,000 or around 45,000 medicinal and aromatic plant species pertaining to medicinal culture (Gupta et al. 2016). Out of these nearly 6000-7500 plant species have been very much exploited for the last 5,000 years traditional system to medicines and are likely to extinct.

India is the second largest producer of vegetables after China. The diverse agro climatic conditions of India offer an immense scope for production of organic vegetables throughout the year. The increase in area, production and productivity associated with nutrition and health security awareness demands lot of promotion of organic vegetables cultivation in the region since these products sell at the premium prices in the domestic and overseas market (Sandhu and Khera, 2008). It is because the major contribution of vegetables to human health is the large amount of Vitamin C and A as well as folic acid and good number of dietary fibres and minerals (Sanwal, 2008). Apart from this, the phytochemicals in vegetables protect the human body from cancers and cardiovascular diseases. Under organic mode of cultivation one can get an average yield of 25-30 tonnes of good quality potato vegetable crop per hectare (Sachan et al. 2008). It is worthwhile to mention that the potato is a key world food vegetable crop which is produced in 130 nations. It is grown from sea level to 3900 m elevation and its edible dry matter accounts for a higher volume of the food consumed in the world than fish and meat combined together (Sachan et al. 2008). More potatoes are consumed by the world’s population than any other vegetables.

Organic farming in India started receiving focused attention from the year 2004-2005 when National Project on Organic farming (NPOF) was launched during 2004, the area under organic farming was 42,000 hectares (Srimathi and Jency, 2014). By March, 2010, it was reached to 1.08 million hectares. In addition to these, 3.40 million hectares was wild forest harvest collection area. Thus, total area under organic certification process by March,2010 was 4.48 million hectares which was increased by 25 folds during last 6 years. In cultivated organic land 7.56 lakh hectares was certified while 3.2 lakh hectares was under conversion. In India, States such as Orissa, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand (Uttaranchal), Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh have been categorized as low or negligible fertilizers consuming states of the country.

Historical Perspective

Organic Farming was initiated in about 10,000 years back when ancient farmers started cultivation depending on natural sources only. There is a brief mention of several organic inputs in our ancient literature like Rigveda, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Kautilya Arthashastra etc. In fact, organic agriculture has its roots in traditional agricultural practices that evolved in countless villages and farming communities over the millennium.

Organic Movement

The organic movement began in the 1930s and 1940s as a reaction to agriculture’s growing reliance on synthetic fertilizers. Artificial fertilizers had been created during the 18th century, initially with superphosphates and then ammonia derived fertilizers mass-produced using the Haber-Bosch process developed during World War I. These early fertilizers were cheap, powerful, and easy to transport in bulk. The 1940s has been referred to as the ‘pesticide era’. Sir Albert Howard is widely considered to be the father of organic farming. Rudolf Steiner, an Austrian philosopher, made important strides in the earliest organic theory with his biodynamic agriculture. More work was done by J.I. Rodale in the United States, Lady Eve Balfour in the United Kingdom, and many others across the world. As a percentage of total agricultural output, organic farming has remained tiny since its beginning. As environmental awareness and concern increased, the originally supply-driven movement became demand driven. Standardized certification brought premium prices, and in some cases government subsidies attracted many farmers converting into organic farming. In the developing world, many farmers started organic farming according to traditional methods but are not certified. In other cases, farmers in the developing world have converted out of necessity. As a proportion of total global agricultural output, organic output remains small, but it has been growing rapidly in many countries, notably in Europe.

History

The history of organic farming is largely based upon the history of organic movement which came to fore as a reaction against the large-scale use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture. This movement can be traced back to England during 1920, when individuals started speaking against a variety of agricultural “innovation”.

One of the earlier pioneers of Organic Farming, Sir Albert Howard, is often referred to as the father of the modern “Organic Farming”. He began to work as a British botanist and served as an agriculture advisor in India, where he observed traditional Indian farming practices and came to respect them as superior to his conventional agriculture science. He documented and developed these organic farming practices/methods. His writings and notably the 1940 book, An Agricultural Testament, have influenced many scientists and farmers of the day.

In Germany Dr. Rudolf Steiner developed biodynamic agriculture which was probably the first comprehensive farming system. In America, the agronomist F.H. King had toured China, Korea and Japan in early 1990s, closely studied the fertilization, tillage and general farming practices being followed there. He published his findings in his book Farmers of Forty Centuries (1911). King probably did not impart any view himself as part of the movement, whether Organic Farming movement or by some other name. However, in the later years, some scientists within the organic farming movement thought, about what King had encountered in Asia as kindred approach.