eChapters

2.1 Tracing History of Casting
The manufacture of end products, viz. two-wheeler, four-wheeler, fan, washing machine, fridge, grinding machine, water cooler, etc., in companies requires many components. The components of these products have different shapes and sizes. Casting is a manufacturing process, which gives shape and size to a component of interest by pouring molten metal, which is in red hot state into a mould, which is designed such that its internal shape and size exactly match with the external shape and size of the component of interest. Casting is a very old art form that dates back thousands of years before the start of written history. Findings from the archaeological record show that the casting process was used more than 6000 years ago, or around 3000 BC. It is assumed that the moulds consisted of two pieces of pottery joined by a rope and featuring a hole to allow the molten metal to be poured into them. It is assumed that early hunting tools and weapons were made in this manner The Greeks and Romans made the casting process in artform to make bronze status, in which hollow wax has been used. Every component of a product was casted individually. The core of the mould was composed of clay and coated in wax. Next, a layer of clay was heated to melt the wax inside, and then the clay was heated once again to burn off any leftover wax. Melted metal was poured into the region where the wax had been removed once the mould was stable and ready, which is a process like contemporary investment casting. China started producing tools, bowls and many industrial items using casting around 1000 BCE. In specific, they produced farm tools and weapons. After several centuries, the casting process reached European counties to make gun, bullets, etc. With the advent of industrial revolution, the casting process became as a usual manufacturing process, what is seen today. Later, several metals, which are used in casting have been invented to produce high quality products with increased end of life for them. Over a period, metal casting underwent development. Casting procedures advanced quickly along with improvements in metal-heating and melting techniques. Gold was the first metal to be casted because of its low melting point and malleability. China made significant contributions to the development of casting when it discovered sand casting and iron, also referred to as pig iron.

16.1 Introduction

Successful egg production is highly dependent on sanitation and decontamination, and producing clean eggs is the most major element of egg sanitation. Egg contents might become contaminated either vertically or horizontally. The ideal option for small farms can be to keep hatching eggs in a hygienic area and incubate them as soon as possible without sanitation but it’s not the same kind in case for commercial producers need to get a poultry veterinarian guidance on the proper egg handling and sanitation program depending on their needs. There are several preharvest techniques used to minimize egg contamination, including immunization, feed additives, home sanitation, bacteriophages, and biosecurity.

Sanitation in the Rabbitry is the best disease-prevention system. Daily cleaning of cages or hutches, containers and surrounding is the easiest way to ensure sanitary condition and hence control disease. The most common diseases found in rabbits are cocciodosis. Pasteurella type pneumonia and enteritis. There are generally caused by lack of sanitation in the rabbitry. With strict sanitation practices such as cleaning all cages and water containers everyday, removal of manure, soiled bedding. Contaminated feed and collecting roughage from uncontaminated areas can drastically reduces chances of any disease in the rabbitry.

The sanitation word is derived from a Latin word sanitas, meaning “health.” In true sense sanitation is the creation and maintenance of hygiene and healthful conditions in abattoir or meat processing plant. So that produced food provides full nutrients with minimal contaminations and hazards to the human health. It creates the aesthetic environment in the workplace which ultimately enhances the work efficiency and satisfaction to the workers. It helps in maintenance of clean environment, less pollution, proper waste disposal and improves ecological balance. It is a prerequisite of food safety, good hygienic practices and total quality management.

Sapota is a hardy, evergreen small tree belonging to the family Sapotaceae. It is known botanically as Manilkara zapota van Royen (syns. M. achras Fosb., M. zapotilla Gilly; Achras sapota L., A. zapota L.; Sapota achras Mill.). Sapota, sapodilla, chiku is a hardy tropical fruit tree. In India, it is mainly cultivated for its delicious fruits. The sapodilla is believed native to Yucatan and possibly other nearby parts of southern Mexico, as well as northern Brazil and Northeastern Guatemala. But now its cultivation is extensive in India (Morton, 1987).

The major varieties under cultivation in thes states are as follows:

Andhra Pradesh: Pala, Kirtibarthi, Cricket Ball, Dwarapudi, Guthi Jonavalasa and Jonavalasa Round.

Gujarat: Kalipatti, Bhuripatti, Piilipatti, Dhola Diwani, Jhumakhia and Cricket Ball Maharashtra-Kalipatti: Cricket Ball, and Murraba

Karnataka-Kalipatti: Cricket Ball, Kirtibarthi, DHS 1 and DHS 2

Tamil Nadu: Guthi, Kirthibarthi, Pala, Co 1, Co 2 and PKM 1

Sapota [Manilkara zapota (L.) P. Royen, (Manilkara achras (Mill.) Fosber] is a member of the family sapotaceae. It is a fairly slow growing and long-lived tree. It is valued for its delicious fruit in India, while in Guatemala, south East Mexico, British Honduras, chickle is commercially produced which is the main ingredient in preparation of chewing gum. Chickle is extracted from trunk and unripe fruits of the tree as white latex exudate. Although synthetic gums are primarily used, countries like Mexico, Venezula and Guatemala still grow sapota for chickle.

It is native to South Mexico as well as North East Guatemala. Manilkara species is found in forests throughout tropical America, which was introduced long ago followed by West Indies, Bahamas, Bermuda and Southern part of Florida mainland. Early in colonial times, it was carried to Phillippines, and later distributed to Malaysia and other countries in the tropics (Purseglove, 1974). It is not known when it was first introduced to India. Commercial cultivation was first taken up in Maharashtra during 1898 (Cheema et al., 1954). Future of sapota appears to be promising, since attention in this crop is enthusiastic from growers and consumers in many countries. Sapota is grown on commercial basis in India, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Mexico and Venezuela.

India is one of the largest producers of sapota in the world. Major states growing this fruit crop are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Assam and Haryana. India’s production of sapota continues to grow up and there is an active research program in India with specific goals towards improving storage, transport and marketing strategies.

Sapota or sapodilla popularly known as Chiku is native to tropical America where it is mainly grown for its chickle, “the gutta parcha” extracted from its latex from stems. It is used as a base material in chewing gum and in some other industrial uses. However, in India it is cultivated for its delicious sweet fruits. The fruit is fleshy berry, variable in shape, size and weight. The skin is thin, rusty brown somewhat scurfy looking like Irish potato, and the pulp soft, melting, crumbling with a sandy or granular texture with 1–5 hard black seeds. The fruit has an exceptionally sweet malty flavour. 

Genus : Achras /Manilkara
Species : sapota L. zapota (Mill.) Forberg 
Family : Sapotaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n=26

Thomas Firmingaer, an English horticulturist while in India in praise of sapota wrote ‘a more luscious, cool and agreeable fruit is not to be within this or perhaps any other country in the world’. A French botanist described sapota as ‘the sweet perfumes of honey, jasmine and lily of the valley’. In view of these the fruit is considered to be one of the best fruits of tropical America, although cannot be compared with the other more popular fruits of the region i.e. pineapple and cherimoya. In many tropical parts of the world this delicious fruit is held in high esteem.

• Delicious Fruit
• Sapota fruit is a good source of sugar which ranges between 12 and 14 per cent.

Cultivars

• Kalipatti, Chaatri, Dhola Diwani, Long Bhuni or Bhunipatti, Jingar, Vanjet, Pata Kirthabharthi Dwarapudi, Cricket Ball, Oval, Vavi Valosa, Bangalora Calcutta Round, Jonnavalosa I, II, round Baramari Pot Sapota, Gavarayya, Thagonampadi, Ayyangan (Rose scented)
• Flowers of Sapota and protogynous Pollination is mediated through the wind.
• The most ideal soils are deep alluvium, sandy loamy red late rites and medium black soils.
• Sapota is a tropical fruit crop optimum temperature ranges between 11°C and 34°C.
• Sapota is grafting of inarching.
• Rootstock – Sapota seedlings, Rayan or Khirnior pala Adam’s apple, Mahua, Star apple.
• Seed germinates by the 4th week, budding and grafting is done on seedling about 1cm thick.

Sapota or sapidilla or bully tree or chiku (Manilkara achras (Mill.) Fosberg) is a delicious tropical fruit crop, was introduced from tropical America. Among lesser-known fruits, area expansion and production of sapota have been observed spectacular. During as the area under sapota is fast increasing and this crop is attaining the status of major fruit crop.

PRESENT STATUS

India is considered to be the largest producer of sapota in the world, though it is considered to be a minor crop in India (Bal, 1997). The area under sapota in India during 2000-01 was 69,400 ha with a production of 6.74 lakh tonnes, while during the year 2012-13, it was 164000 ha with a production of 14.95 lakh tonnes (ICAR-DataBook 2014). The area under sapota is increasing so rapidly owing to a wider range of adaptability. In many regions, cultivation of sapota is preferred over mango (Bal, 1997). The important sapota growing states are Maharastra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Punjab and Haryana. Recently, our country has made a beginning in export to Middle East countries.

Sapota, Manilkara zapota commonly called Chickoo is a popular tropical winter fruit cultivated widely in Gujarat, West Bengal, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. In north, its cultivation is seen across Jammu to Dehradun. Very few insect pests infest Sapota, the details of which are given hereunder:

Sapota leaf webber, Nephopteryx eugraphella Ragonot (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera)

This is a pest of major concern in Chickoo cultivation in India. The eggs are oval and pale yellow in colour which change to reddish brown near hatching. The caterpillar is pinkish in appearance and bears two longitudinal dorsolateral lines. The full fed larva measures 25 mm in length. The newly formed light green pupa changes to reddish brown in the later stage. The adult is a greyish moth having hooked antennae (Plate 10e) bears two vertical lines on the forewing whereas, the hind wings

It is tropical fruit which is commercially cultivated in humid areas of India. Fruits are very tasty, sweet and rich in sugar. Trees are ever light green, slow growing and it attains a height of about eight meters.

Origin and Distribution

Sapota is native to Central and South America, specifically from the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico to Costa Rica, where the largest population of native trees still exists (Gilly 1943). It is now widespread throughout the tropical regions of the world, including Central and South America, the West Indies, India, and Florida in the United States.

Sapota is grown on a commercial basis in India, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Mexico, Venezuela, Guatemala, and some other Central American countries. India is the largest producer of sapota fruit with current production around 24,000 ha (Chadha 1992). Sapota is widely planted in south Florida, where the fruit is marketed locally and shipped to northern and eastern U.S. markets. The fruit, however, is not commonly seen in the United States. In southern Mexico and Central America where sapodilla is native, it is considered to be one of the best of the tropical fruits.

20.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of Indo-Malayan region

• Grown in all southern states and extends northwards to Odisha and Bengal.

• In India, it is cultivated in gardens and nurseries as live fence in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal.

20.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Wood, leaves, pods and seeds.

• Sappan wood or East Indian red wood - Multipurpose tree, yielding valuable natural dyes with medicinal properties.

• Source of commercial redwood or Brazil wood.

• Used for inlaying work, cabinet making, violin bows and for walking sticks

• Stem produces gum, tannin or dye stuff

Abstract
 
Mention about the Great Himalayan river of Vedic Period (10000-8000 BC) is found in ancient Indian literature. The river called as ‘Saraswati’ in India and ‘Hakra’ in Pakistan, was flowing with full majesty through Thar Desert around 6000 BC and dried up during 3000 BC due to climatic and tectonic changes in Himalayan region. The relict of this lost river is still found as palaeochannels in this region. Large numbers of archaeological sites of Harappan civilization occur along the dry river bed. 

6.1. Origin and distribution

• Indigenous to moist deciduous forest of south East Asia (Myanmar, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Andaman Islands)

• In India, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, North Bengal, Parts of Western Ghats and Assam are the major cultivators.

6.2. Economic importance

• Economic part - Root.

• Used in treatment of snake bite, stings, nervous disorders etc.,

• Root bark - 40-60% alkaloids helps in reducing high blood pressure and sedative or tranquilizing agent.

• Fresh roots - Emit acrid aroma very bitter.

Scientific name: Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz
Family: Apocyanaceae
Rauvolfia serpentina, also spelled as Rauwolfia, is indeed a vital plant in traditional Indian medicine. It has been used in folk medicine for centuries to treat conditions like snake and insect bites, malaria, dysentery, and more. This plant is deeply rooted in Indian culture, mentioned in Hindu manuscripts as far back as 1000 BCE. It's also known by various names, including Indian snake root, devil pepper, serpentine wood, sarpagandha, and chandrika. Botanically, it belongs to the family Apocynaceae, with the genus Rauvolfia comprising 74 species. Unfortunately, Rauvolfia serpentina is listed as endangered due to over-exploitation and habitat loss, emphasizing the need for conservation and sustainable use to ensure its availability for future generations.
Origin and distribution
The distribution of R. serpentina is very wide, is occurrence is sporadic. The plant commonly grows scattered and close to each other. They are widely distributed in the Sub Himalayan tract from Himachal Pradesh to Sikkim and Bhutan, Eastern and Western Ghats, in some parts of central India. Beyond India the plant is distributed in Bangladesh, Malaysia, Thailand, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and Burma.

Scale: Saissetia coffeae: Coccidae

Scale insects

Brownish black scale infests lower surface of leaves along with mid ribs and mid veins.They also cover petioles and tender shoots.  Due to draining of sap, leaves turn yellow and drop, plants become stunted.

ABSTRACT

Village Resource Centre (VRC) provides information services to the rural population to empower them to face day to day challenges. In this line, the Department of Space, ISRO & RRSSC is bringing its space technology to common man by setting up of Village Resource Centres, with a view to integrate the capabilities of communication and remote sensing satellites to address the changing and critical needs of rural communities. VRC is totally interactive VSAT based network for providing space enabled information related to land records, natural resources, drinking water wells, ground water recharge, soil types, alternate cropping pattern, waste lands, etc. VRCs also provide  variety of services in its tele-education and tele-medicine programmes, online decision support, weather forecasting, water management, interactive farmers advisory services (video conferencing) etc.

Introduction

Satellites are specifically made for telecommunication purpose. They are used for mobile applications such as communication to ships, vehicles, planes, hand-held terminals and for TV and radio broadcasting. They are responsible for providing these services to an assigned region (area) on the earth. The power and bandwidth of these satellites depend upon the preferred size of the footprint, complexity of the traffic control protocol schemes and the cost of ground stations. A satellite works most efficiently when the transmissions are focused with a desired area. When the area is focused, then the emissions don’t go outside that designated area and thus minimizing the interference to the other systems. This leads more efficient spectrum usage. Satellite’s antenna patterns play an important role and must be designed to best cover the designated geographical area (which is generally irregular in shape). Satellites should be designed by keeping in mind its usability for short and long term effects throughout its life time. The earth station should be in a position to control the satellite if it drifts from its orbit it is subjected to any kind of drag from the external forces.

Abstract

This paper sets out to describe key results and experiences obtained during the assessment of the crop response to water which varies strongly from crop to crop depending on its specific genetic characteristics and adaptation to ecological conditions. The specific crop water information for the different crops is compiled in a crop-based data base. This includes crop water parameters, yield response to water, as well as selection of economy crops. Existing natural water resources can sustain the crop production with high yield as well as economic value with minimal environment impact. Most of the crop varieties get all of its required water from rainfall- water but due to climate change there is always a demand of irrigation water from the ground water resources. Thus, there is a need to evaluate the crop water information in relation to ground water extraction as a source of irrigation.