eChapters

India is the home to a number of fruit species including mango, banana citrus etc. which have global importance. The North-Eastern (NE) region is particularly endowed with tremendous diversity of banana and citrus and a number of wild/ minor species. However, India has been and continues to be highly interdependent for germplasm sharing with many countries. In the early times, development in Indian fruit industry brought about largely by making selections from indigenous variability for large scale production. Selection from natural or introduced diversity was performed by the local growers, often patronized by rulers, continued over the years and resulted in the development of several popular types of different fruits.

Fruits and vegetables are important supplement to the nutritional requirements in the human diet as they provide the essential minerals, vitamins, flavonoids/ antioxidants and dietary fiber required for maintaining health. India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world after China. During 2012-13, fruits and vegetables have registered a production of about 77.7 million MT and 159.5 million MT respectively (NHB, 2013. However, increase in production has not matched with the improvement in infrastructure for post-harvest management and processing. Fruits and vegetables are highly susceptible to deterioration owing to their high moisture content and delicate nature. Besides, most of the fruits and vegetables are seasonal in nature leading to glut in the local market during peak season resulting in huge economic losses to the growers. According to an estimate, 6-18% of fruits and vegetables are lost in the supply chain right from harvest to consumption due to lack of infrastructure for postharvest management, processing and value addition (Nanda et al., 2012).

21.1. Aim

To familiarize the students with the machineries and equipments used in fruit and vegetable processing.

21.2. Theory

The students will visit the processing unit/pilot plant and familiarize with different machineries and equipment used in fruit processing units. The students will observe the layout and the details of the machinery for different unit operations viz; raw material receiving, washing, sorting/grading, peeling, slicing, pulping, heating, filling, exhausting, sealing, sterilization/processing, labelling and storage for different products. The list of the machineries and equipments and important chemicals used in fruit preservation is as under:

21.3. Apparatus/machineries/equipments used in food industries

21.3.1. Basic equipment/ accessories

Nursery is a place where planting material, such as seedlings, saplings, cuttings, etc., are raised, propagated and multiplied under favourable conditions for transplanting in prepared beds. In other words, “A vegetable nursery is a place or an establishment for raising or handling of young vegetable seedlings until they are ready for more permanent planting.” There are some vegetables whose seed need to be sown directly in the main plot such as cowpea, okra, bottle gourd, bitter gourd, pumpkin, sponge gourd, ridge gourd, peas, beans, and similar others. Similarly, certain vegetables cannot grow by seeds directly and need to multiply by vegetative means like pointed gourd, ivy gourd, kakrol, kartoli, garlic, zinger, colocasia, Aravi, water chestnut etc.

Floriculture is most diversified and potential component of horticultural industry in India. It is one of the fastest growing sectors in domestic and international trade markets and holds high business potential and prospects for trade. In ancient era, the flowers were used mainly for religious offering but now floriculture sector has emerged as a commercial venture. There is a dynamic shift from sustenance production to commercial production in this era and thereby significant increase in trade of flowers at domestic level because of rapid urbanization, increase in income level, etc. Flower business is considered as a most profitable business as commercial floriculture has higher potential. The cut and loose flowers have opened various avenues for establishment of flower business.

An emerging, promising, affordable, and sustainable method of providing micronutrients to a large population with limited access to varied meals and other micronutrient therapies is referred to as biofortification. The biofortified tuber crops, particularly sweet potato, cassava, yam, and taro, are giving the targeted people adequate amount of nutrients. When genetic diversity is present in a gene pool of targeted crop, biofortification through conventional breeding approaches has been most successful. The breeding strategies used to elevate micronutrients include pre-breeding, large-scale germplasm screening, molecular marker development and understanding genetic control and Genotype x Environment interaction (GxE).

Ecological engineering has recently emerged as a paradigm for considering pest management approaches that rely on the use of cultural techniques to manipulate farm habitat and to enhance biological control. In contrast to the intensive use of ecosystems, these days to enhance productivity can affect agro-ecosystems through soil and water depletion, biodiversity loss, challenging pest problems and disruption in flow of ecosystem services. Ecological engineering for pest management mainly focuses on increasing the abundance, diversity and function of natural enemies in horticultural crops habitats by providing refuges and alternate or supplementary food resources and also attracts different kinds of pollinators like honeybees.

Government of Andhra Pradesh has identified Horticulture sector as one of the growth engine with a focus to increase the production, productivity and quality all horticultural crops coupled with value chain development and marketing linkages for better price realization. Total area under horticultural crops is 17.95 lakh ha with a production of ` 314.78 lakh tonnes. Horticulture sector has recorded 10.17 % growth over previous year and contributing ` 49,189 crores during 2020-21 to GVA of Andhra Pradesh (DH, Govt. of Andhra Pradesh, 2021).

Aquaculture production is promptly increasing all over the world. To increase the demand and for best management practices, we required additional technological innovations in various fisheries and aquaculture fields such as breeding, feeds, disease management, etc. The study of epigenetics provides a new way to comprehend ecofriendly-induced epigenetic markers linked to economically relevant features, disease resistance, and other qualities, allowing for the establishment of more suitable breeding conditions in aquaculture. CH Waddington invented the term “epigenetics” in 1942 to define the “study of the interactions between genes and their products that bring the phenotype into being,” which establishes the relationship between DNA segment and phenotype (Waddingto, 1942). Epigenetics is defined as processes or events that influence gene activity inheritance without relying on variations in DNA base sequences.

Introduction Concerns about how future generations can sustainably produce more food are felt everywhere. The use of chemicals, nutrient leaching, and the conversion of natural land to agriculture are all important problems that have a negative influence on the environment and natural resources. The usage of nitrogen in artificial fertilizers has increased 20 times over the past 20 years, severely eutrophicating water bodies. Therefore, it is believed that the only approach to increase water and nutrient efficiency, as well as reduce waste, is to close the loop between crops and animals. A further step towards sustainability would be to use less land (Datta, 2016).

Introduction

In aquaculture practises carried out in open environments (e.g. ponds, cages and pens), natural interaction between the culture and non-culture species, where the culture species are been fed by the non-culture species (predation) can occur, causing significant economic loses (Ross, 1988). As many as thirteen different predators are considered to cause loss or damage on salmon farms in Scotland alone among which cetaceans are notable. Seals, sea lions, aquatic birds, dolphins, whales, otters, crabs, starfish, snail, snakes, rats etc are generally considered as predators (SSGA, 1990; Miron et al., 2005), but cetacean species are not notable predators within salmon farms. It is necessary to develop an environment friendly and economically feasible methods or technologies to limit the useless natural interaction. Manual chasing away or removal of predators, usage of scarecrows, anti-predatory nets, covering nets and increasing the tension of nets are some methods used to prevent predations in different aquaculture scenarios.

Acoustic Deterrent Devices (ADDs) otherwise called as Acoustic Harassment Devices (AHDs) help to prevent predation as they produce strong underwater noises (sound waves) that disturb and scare off the predators (Gordon & Northridge, 2002). AHDs are comparatively higher energy output devices than ADDs that operate at a power level of above 185 dB re 1µPa @1m. However, as the hearing threshold of different predators differ, the term “ADDs” are generally used for those that are efficient to deter the predators irrespective of their operating power levels (Götz & Janik 2010). One of the first usage of different unspecified sounds (eg: killer whale’s recorded voice) to deter predators (seals) were during the 1970s and no sounds were then found efficient in a long-term run (Anderson and Hawkins, 1988). Later through the 1980s, the precursor of modern ADDs (175-210 dB re 1uPa @1m) that emit out sound waves of frequency range (8-17 kHz), which is similar to the predator’s (seals) most sensitive hearing range were developed (Mate et al.,1987).

Introduction

An integrated approach to understanding the changing dynamics in water resources involves taking into account various factors that influence the management of water resources under changing climatic conditions (Pahl-Wostl, 2007). It is a holistic approach that combines different disciplines, including hydrology, climatology, ecology, geography, and social sciences, to develop a comprehensive understanding of water resources. The integrated approach is essential for several reasons, including addressing climate change impacts, sustainable management of water resources, enhancing water security, addressing water quality issues, and promoting collaboration among stakeholders. Climate change is causing alterations in precipitation patterns, melting glaciers, and changes in river flows, affecting water availability and quality. An integrated approach helps in understanding the climate change impacts on water resources and developing adaptation strategies (Asif et al., 2023).

Introduction

Evapotranspiration is a vital process in the Earth’s water cycle, and it involves two main processes—evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation refers to the conversion of water from its liquid state to its gaseous state, which occurs primarily from the surface of bodies of water, wet vegetation, and soils. This process requires energy, which is typically provided by direct solar radiation and ambient air temperature. Transpiration, on the other hand, is the process by which plants release water vapor through small openings in their leaves called stomata. This process is essential for plant growth and function as it helps regulate the plant’s temperature and allows for nutrient uptake and water transport. Like evaporation, transpiration also requires energy, with factors like vapor pressure gradient and wind speed influencing the rate at which water is released.

To accurately measure evapotranspiration, it is necessary to consider a range of factors such as temperature, radiation, wind speed, and humidity. Plant parameters, such as the presence of a cuticle or the size and number of stomata, can also greatly influence the transpiration rate. Other factors that may impact evapotranspiration include the season, time of day, and soil properties such as water holding capacity and root depth. Evapotranspiration is a complex concept that has been studied by various scientists and organizations over time. Three main evapotranspiration (ET) concepts have been developed: Reference ET, ET under standard conditions, and ET under nonstandard conditions. The goal of determining potential or reference evapotranspiration is to exclude crop-specific variations from the evapotranspiration process. The potential evapotranspiration concept, introduced in the late 1940s and 50s by Penman, assumes constant crop conditions and defines it as “the amount of water transpired in a given time by a short green crop, completely shading the ground, of uniform height and with adequate water status in the soil profile.” ETo, which is a climatic parameter, represents the evaporating power of the atmosphere at a certain location and time of the year and is computed from weather data. It does not take into account crop characteristics or soil conditions, and the only factors affecting it are climatic parameters. The range of ETo varies from 1–2 mm/day in humid and subhumid temperate regions to 6–9 mm/day in warm arid and semi-arid temperate regions and from 2–3 in cool humid and subhumid tropics to 6–8 mm/day in warm arid and semi-arid tropics. Actual ET is the amount of water on a large area of grass that is actively growing and covering the entire soil surface it actually uses. The amount of water that is actually evacuated from a surface as a result of the processes E and T is known as ETa. Crop water needs can be calculated by the following equation.

Introduction

Water pollution is a significant issue that damages the quality of aquatic ecosystem. The pollution of water bodies is caused by several point and non point sources. Among them, wastewater released from livestock farms poses a potent risk for environmental pollution accelerating disease load and premature deaths (Vaishnav et al. 2023). Numerous small and large scale livestock farms are being operated around world to compensate the increased food demand from about 200 kcal per person per day in 2000 to about 400 kcal per person per day in 2050, South Asia's food demand for livestock products is expected to almost double (Thornton, 2010). Significant dietary changes toward animal based foods accelerates the livestock production (Springmann et al. 2016).

Fisheries management has evolved, acknowledging the intricate connections between individual fisheries, ecosystems, and human activities. Discards, the portion of the catch discarded at sea, have garnered attention due to their significant global impact. Analysing the global research landscape on discards, the USA, Spain, and Australia lead in publications, highlighting the global interest in addressing this issue. This review article explores the reasons for discarding, its consequences, and the subsequent fate of discarded catch. Discards result from factors like economic considerations, fishing regulations, and storage constraints. The aftermath of discarding involves various outcomes; the survivability of discarded fish varies, with high mortality observed in small fishes and those with gas bladders, death, or being used as bait. The timeline of discards, spanning from the 1970s to the present, reflects the increasing awareness and international efforts to address this issue. In 2019, the estimated annual global discards were 10.5 million tonnes, recorded significantly in the northwest Pacific and southwest Atlantic regions. This review article delves into gear-wise and species-wise discards, revealing variations in discarding practices across fisheries. The Indian scenario highlights the decline in discards, especially in shrimp freezer trawlers. The decline in discards is attributed to changes in fishing technologies such as bycatch reduction devices, management actions like discard bans, quantifying the economic disincentives due to discards, and societal attitudes that aim to mitigate discards. Regulations and initiatives worldwide, assessing discards in fisheries is crucial for sustainable resource utilization, as depicted in a flowchart illustrating the necessity of such assessments. In conclusion, reducing discards contributes to healthier ecosystems, sustainable fisheries, and long-term global food security, calling for continued efforts to minimize wasteful practices in fisheries, this article emphasizes the need for responsible fishing practices.

Introduction A few decades back, no one would ever consider the potential danger posed by an ocean overrun with jellyfish? But many researchers around the world assure us that we can turn that danger into an asset with the help of scientific ideas and careful management. Gelatinous zooplankton like jellyfish are thought to have existed millions of years before the dinosaurs did. There are cases where these emotionless, mindless, bloodless organisms kill an adult human (Wilson, 1947). Despite being an annoyance, they could greatly benefit human society in many ways. The unfortunate truth is that even though they have 500 million years of history, they still appear to be an untapped opportunity. Jellyfish are not only edible, but also extremely nutritious due to their low calorie, fat, and protein/collagen content. Jellyfish are known for their refined taste, which can lean toward the salty side. The texture is more of a factor; it's not as gelatinous as one might think, falling somewhere between a summer squash and a glass noodle. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report published in 2019, human activities have had an impact on virtually all marine organisms, including corals, oysters, and other marine organisms. However, jellyfish are more resistant to the acidic effects of the world's oceans. This does not necessarily imply that these organisms are highly immune, but they are doing better than average. There are about hundred known venomous jellyfish species out of an estimated 10,000 worldwide.

Introduction

Plastics has the versatile properties like light weight, durability, less expensiveness, and it is readily available for the consumers usage. Due to these diverse properties, the usage of the plastics is increasing day to day and their production has been increased drastically in the past 50 years (Cressey, 2016). At present, global plastics production has reached to 159 million tonnes. This diversified consumption has led to the production of enormous amount of plastic waste (Hahladakis et al., 2018) and their properties allows for long range transport in the ocean (Baalkhuyur et al., 2018). According to the Earth Action reports, nearly 68,64,299 tonnes of plastic waste will end up in nature due to imbalance between the plastics consumption and production. India is among 12 countries responsible for 52 % of the world mismanaged plastic waste (Plastic Overshoot Day: Report 2023).

Marine litter occurrence and impacts are common in worldwide marine systems (Bhattacharya and Khare, 2019) and they are degraded into micro sized particles called microplastics through a various physical, chemical and biological processes such as U-V light, wind and ocean currents (Solomon and Palanisami, 2016). Microplastics are < 5mm in size and are further divided into large and small microplastics of size 1–5 mm and 20 µm–1 mm, respectively (Loder and Gerdtz, 2015). Microplastics are classified into 2 categories: i) primary microplastics, intentionally produced as small sizes, used in cosmetics, microfibers from clothing, fishing nets, and their shape, size, colour, and chemical composition may vary depending upon the products. ii) Secondary microplastics are the tiny particles including fibres, fragments formed by the degradation or breakdown of larger plastics particles due to the UV rays from sunlight oxidation process. These particles are generated from the plastic films, accidentally or intentionally discarded fishing ropes and nets, plastic bottles and plastic bags etc. (Andrady, 2011).

Introduction

Community-based fisheries management (CBFM), in which a community takes responsibility for managing its adjacent livelihood habitats with government or third-party assistance, can take both aquatic and terrestrial forms. CBFM plays an important role in managing aquatic ecosystems, fisheries, and communities using either traditional or scientific methods. If something bad happens, the locals take immediate action and deal with it in a systematic manner.

Introduction

The hydrological cycle transfers water and energy between the land and atmosphere, but its regional characteristics make accurate modeling challenging. Hydrological models aim to predict hydrological events and processes, but there are uncertainties in their output due to the complex nature of the system and assumptions made. Empirical models use statistical or mathematical relationships, while process-based models use equations to represent physical processes.

Hydrological modeling involves various steps, leading to uncertainties that can affect the accuracy of model predictions. The four main types of uncertainties commonly encountered are data, model, parameter, and climate uncertainty. Data uncertainty arises due to errors or gaps in the input data, model uncertainty stems from limitations in the model structure or assumptions used, parameter uncertainty arises due to uncertainties in the values allocated to various model parameters, and climate uncertainty refers to uncertainties in the future climate projections used as inputs.