eChapters

Abstract: This chapter reports soil and nutrient loss due to water erosion from five major land uses, i.e. vegetable fields, coconut plantation, arecanut plantation, home garden and moist evergreen forest on the undulating topography of the island. Soil loss under the land uses was quantified using replicated runoff plots. Vegetative methods, i e Gliricidia hedgerow + crop, hedgerow + mulch + crop, hedgerow + mulch + crop + grass barrier, for vegetable field under till conditions, and Pueraria cover crop (coconut + Pueraria phaseoloides  cover crop) for coconut plantation were tested to know their potential to arrest soil erosion in the respective system. Soil loss from the vegetable field under No till conditions, coconut plantation, arecanut plantation, home garden and forest was 3.8, 12.4, 10.6, 8.4 and 2.3 tonnes/ha, respectively. Soil working in vegetable fields (till + crop treatment) provoked soil loss to124 tonnes / ha. Erodibility was the lowest (0.06) in the forest and highest (0.26) in the vegetable field under till condition.  Among the nutrients, the highest loss, across the treatments, occurred for nitrogen and lowest for phosphorus. The hedgerow alone in vegetable fields reduced the soil loss substantially (66 %). However, it together with mulch and grass barrier reduced the soil loss nearly equal to that found in the forest. Like wise, Pueraria cover crop (19 years old) brought down the soil loss under the coconut plantation equal to that in the forest. These observations suggest that Gliricidia hedgerows for vegetable cultivation and cover crop for coconut plantation may be good vegetative methods for soil erosion control in the island.

Abstract: North East India has a fragile inaccessible terrain with a sloping topography wherein agroforestry being diversified in nature, has the capability to eliminate the ill effects of land degradation through intensification in land use. Shifting cultivation widely practiced by the aboriginals is mainly instrumental in carrying out deforestation as well as land degradation but many indigenous  land use systems present in practice since time immemorial are proven considering an approach to achieve eco-sustainability. A number of agroforestry systems such as  agrihortisilviculture, multistoried  homegradens, silvipastoral and agroaquaculture etc are dominantly present in the region.The information on soil fertility improvement by agroforestry systems is documented herein. Organic matter build-up was appreciably high in soils of agroforestry. Similar to soils under shifting cultivation, a low humification of soil humus was noted in soils of uplands without any forest cover but a reverse trend leading to high rate of humification could be initiated in soils under agroforestry systems. Moreover, decline in soil acidity, rise in water holding capacity and augmentation in nutrient  availability were noted in soils under agroforestry systems.

Abstract: This chapter reports variations in organic C, total N and P, mineral N and P, and exchangeable K, Ca and Mg, and microbial biomass C in soils in relation to leaf litter and root biomass (0 to 10, 10 to 20 and 20 to 30cm) at two canopy positions viz. under canopy and between canopy of homegarden trees i.e. coconut palm (Cocos nucifera L.), and clove (Eugenia cariophyllata Thunb) and nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt. Nees) spice trees. It also deals with seasonal variations in pool sizes of mineral N (NH4+-N and NO₃--N), and net N mineralization rate (0-15 cm) in relation to rainfall and temperature under the homegarden trees, and examines how high rainfall (incessant rainfall) influences water filled pore space (WFPS), net nitrification and net ammonification rates, pool sizes of NH4+-N and NO₃--N and microbial biomass C in the soils and conserves nutrients in humid tropical climate. The chapter also describes how high rainfall makes phosphorus available in high regime of iron in the soils; and perennial cover crop like Pueraria separately and together with phosphorus increases soil N mineralization. Organic C, total N, total P, exchangeable NH₄+, NO_3- , exchangeable K, Ca and Mg are higher in the under canopy and between canopy positions of all the homegarden trees than that in open. Rate of mineralization is the highest during the post-wet season and the lowest during the dry season (February to April) under all homegarden trees. High rainfall during the wet season, however, reduces the rate of nitrification under all the trees.

Abstract: The continouning decline in the availability of cultivable land, rising energy and land casts together with the mounting demand for fruits, fodder and timber have given thrust to the concept of agroforestry plantation in Madhya Pradesh. It is a very intensive form of cropping, which has high relevance to the food and nutritional security of our ever-increasing population. Modern cropping systems differ in many ways from the traditional systems. They require more capital to establish and must be more precocious and productive to be profitable. Agroforestry based land use development in Madhya Pradesh will claim sustainability, increased agricultural productivity besides fruit fuel-timber productivity and also helping small scale farmers by generating employment and income. Therefore, the utilization of wastelands has paramount importance and agroforestry is one of the landuse options.

Introduction

India has about 18% of the human and 15% of the livestock population of the world that needs to be supported from only 2% of the earth’s land area. The per capita land availability has declined from 0.89 ha in 1951 to 0.37 ha in 1991 and is likely to be 0.20 ha by 2035 (Singh, 2005). It is estimated that demand for green and dry fodder would be short by 64 and 24% by 2020, while it was short by 62 and 22% in 2005. The current sustainable production of firewood is 17 million tons from forest areas and 98 million tons from non-forest areas, leaving a net deficit of 86 million tons which is removed illicitly from forest and scrub formations all over the country. Nearly 32.67% of India’s geographical area is affected by various forms of soil erosion and land degradation. The area reported to be degraded in India varies widely, ranging from 63.9 million ha (Anonymous, 2000) to 187.70 million ha (Sehgal and Abrol, 1994), due to variations in approaches used to define degraded lands. The area under wastelands is estimated to occupy 63.85 million ha which is 20% of the country’s geographical area.

Introduction

Dry lands cover nearly one-third of the earth’s total surface and characterized by high climatic variability in rainfall and temperature along with higher potential of wind and water erosion (Mainguet, 1991; Okin, 2000). Wind erosion has been identified as one of the overriding factors of desertification in regions characterized by strong and persistent winds through out an annual dry season (Le Houerou, 1996). Clear sweep of strong winds across sandy desert is the great hindrance in sustenance and progress of agricultural activities. The strong blowing winds on one hands takes away top fertile soil thus causing irreparable loss to soil productivity, on the other hand deposition of airborne soil particles (sand, silt and clay) block the roads, railways, water bodies, open canals and burry agricultural fields (Gupta and Aggrawal,1978; Prasad et al, 2004). To minimize erosion hazards of speedy winds and optimize production of agricultural crops, various efforts have been made in the past by adopting different soil conservation measures among which the windbreak/ shelterbelt plantations rank high due to their expected effects on wind velocity, microclimate and productivity. 

Abstract: This article gives an overview of the possibility and scope of successful cultivation of medicinal and aromatic herbs as intercrops with multipurpose tree species under agroforestry conditions. The challenges are many. Sustainable production under any agroforestry system is the main goal to be achieved through short and long term strategies. Diversification of the existing conventional cropping sequences coupled with developing of suitable technology packages is the need of the hour to cope up with ever increasing demand for diversified products. The hypothesis is, if intercropping of annuals, biennials and perennial medicinal plants in association with fuel, fodder, timber, pulp, fruit trees including tree species with medicinal values on the farmland, an alternate land use system; can provide economically viable option for sustainable systems. This chapter describes the potential and benefits of medicinal plants based agroforestry. Our experience is that planting timber, fuel and fodder or fruit tree species in combination with medicinal crops paves the way for diversified products and better economic returns to the farmers. Multipurpose tree species outside the forest have played very important role in catering to the day to day requirements of the rural population. Different farming systems consisting of crops + trees have yielded encouraging results and have not only helped diversification but enhanced productivity of land per unit area. Intercropping medicinal and aromatic herb species further makes agroforestry more remunerative.

Introduction
 
Historically, foresters did not view trees as typical plants having the systems of heredity similar to all other living organisms. Previously it was felt that the tree development depended only upon the environment in which it was grown. Recently, the “forest tree parentage” in the tree improvement programme has gained importance.  Although there are several breeding methods for improvement of any crop, the most commonly used breeding method in tree improvement is “selection” of superior trees from existing or established population. The objective of selection programme is to obtain significant amount of genetic gain as quickly and inexpensively as possible, while at the same time maintaining a broad genetic base to ensure the future genetic general principle; that is choosing the most desirable individuals for the use as parent in breeding and production programmes.

The most successful tree improvement programmes are those in which proper vegetative propagules and provenances are used. Success in the establishment and productivity of forest plantations is determined largely by the species used and the source of seed or vegetative propagules used within the population.

Introduction

Bamboos are group of woody perennial evergreen plants in the true grass family Poaceae, subfamily Bambusoideae, tribe Bambuseae. Bamboos are the fastest growing woody plants (up to 60 centimeter/day) in the world. Bamboo cultivation, especially in intensively managed and productive plantation has attracted a great interest in recent years leading to huge demand of good quality planting material. The easiest and most common method for propagation is seeds. However, in bamboo due to a long flowering cycles, seeds are not available every year and being a cross-pollinating species seedling population show much variability in characters. Species like Bambusa vulgaris and Bambusa balcooa flowers rarely and do not produce seeds making propagation absolutely dependent on vegetative means. Vegetative propagation offers a tremendous scope for mass multiplication of many commercially important species. Bamboos are vegetatively propagated through clump divisions, rhizomes, offsets, layering, marcotting, culm cutting, branch cutting, macroproliferation and through in vitro techniques. Propagation through clump divisions, rhizomes and offsets yield limited number of plants. Layering and marcotting techniques are not fit for commercial production. In vitro methods offer great scope for mass multiplication, but require high initial cost and skilled manpower and thus are not viable for decentralized forest nurseries.

Abstract: The Santhals of Orissa raise Teak (Tectona grandis) and Cashew nut(Anacardium occidentale) on their marginal and wastelands randomly to meet their contingencies. Upland is utilized for short duration upland paddy cultivation for food. The sporadically grown Teak and Cashew is used as insurance crops for meeting the high risk of dry land paddy. This work is unique and innovative as it was carried out in participatory mode on the pooled land from 14 Santhal households.  It is a maiden attempt in Orissa to develop Agroforestry models using forestry (teak) and horticulture (cashewnut) interventions into the paddy cultivation on uplands by Santhals without much alteration in their age old traditional agricultural practice. The basic objective of this research is to develop most profitable Agroforestry system(s) to provide best land use option for the risk prone dry land paddy cultivation to improve the farmers’ economy with simultaneous natural resource conservation.
 
The Agroforestry models Silvi-horticulture (Teak and Cashewnut)  Agri-silviculture (Paddy and Teak), Agri-horticulture (Paddy and Cashewnut) and Agri-silvi-horticulture (Teak, Cashew nut and Paddy) were developed by the Santhal tribe in Mayurbhanj District of Orissa. The inputs and planting material were sponsored by a leading NGO- Gamin Vikas Trust, which is working on poverty alleviation through Natural Resource Management of the State.

1.    The word “economics” has been derived from the Greek word_______ which means household management?

(a) OIKONOMICAS

(b) OIKOS

(c) NOMOS

(d) OICONOMICAS

2.    The term “microeconomics” has been derived from a Greek word ____________.

(a) MICROS

(b) MIKROS

(c) MACROS

(d) MACROS

1.    The term “macroeconomics” has been derived from a Greek word?

(a) MICROS

(b) MIKROS

(c) MAKROS

(d) MACROS

2.    Who coined the term ‘macro economics’?

(a) A. Smith

(b) Samuelson

(c) A. Marshall

(d) Ragner Frish

1.    A farm is a

(a) Producing unit

(b) Consuming unit

(c) Both of a & b

(d) None of these

2.    Farm is a_________unit.

(a) Economic

(b) Social

(c) Decision making

(d) All of these

1.    A series of activities involved in moving the agricultural goods and services from production point to ultimate consumers is known as–

(a) Agricultural marketing

(b) Agricultural selling

(c) Marketing

(d) Agricultural finance

2.    The study of all the activities, agencies and policies involved in the procurement of farm inputs by the farmers and the movement of agricultural products from the farm to consumers is known as :–

(a) Personal selling

(b) Agricultural marketing

(c) Rural marketing

(d) None of these

1.    ___________means studying, examining and analyzing the financial aspects are pertaining to farm business.

(a) Agricultural finance

(b) Finance management

(c) Accounting management

(d) All of these

2.    Agricultural finance deals with the :–

(a) Acquisition of fund

(b) Use of fund

(c) Management of funds

(d) All of these

1.    Normally economic growth refers to ___________.

(a) Growth in actual nominal per capita output

(b) Growth in potential real per capita output

(c) Growth in actual real per capita output

(d) Growth in potential real per capita output

2.    Which one of the following is not true about economic development?

(a) Problem of under developed country

(b) Its discontinuous and spontaneous change

(c) It means more output only

(d) Its innovative process

1.    The first step in an econometric study should be to___________.

(a) Develop the specification

(b) Collect the data

(c) Review the literature

(d) Estimate the unknown parameters

2.    OLS stands for what in Econometrics?

(a) Optimally linearized solution

(b) There is no such thing in econometrics

(c) Ordinary least squares

(d) None of these

1.    Operations Research provides ___________.

(a) Earliest solution

(b) Feasible solutions

(c) Scientific approach to solutions

(d) Statistical approach to solutions

2.    Operations Research totally eliminates ___________.

(a) Quantitative approach

(b) Intuitive approach

(c) Qualitative approach

(d) Decision makers ability

1.    Thomas Malthus suggested that population growth _____________.

(a) Would eventually lead to starvation and death as it exceeded the land’s potential to produce food

(b) Would lead to strong and better societies

(c) Would grow at a slower rate than land’s potential to produce food

(d) And the land’s potential to produce food would grow at the same rate

2.    Which population growth rate is likely to add relatively more to younger age population (youth effect on size of labour force)?

(a) Larger

(b) Smaller

(c) Uncertain

(d) Population growth rate does not affect the age structure of population

1.    The concept of agribusiness was born in Harvard University in the year____________.

(a) 1947

(b) 1956

(c) 1967

(d) 2006

2.    In agriculture education system, the concept of “Agribusiness” was first time used by

(a) John Davis

(b) P F Drucker

(c) Henery Foyal

(d) F.W. Taylor

‘Importance of Agriculture in National Perspective in India

Importance of Agriculture in Indian Economy: The following points emphasize the importance of agriculture in Indian Economy. Indian is an agricultural country, where 70 per cent population is dependent on agriculture. This forms the main source of income. The contribution of agriculture in the national income in India is more, hence, it is said that agriculture in India is a backbone of Indian Economy. The importance of agriculture in the National Economy is explained by the following points.

Role of agriculture in Indian economy: Agriculture is the main sector of Indian economy which is amply powered by the following points:

Share in National Income: The contribution from agriculture has been continuously falling from 55.1% in 1950-51 to 37.6% in 1981-82 & further to 18.5% in 2006-07 and 14.2% in 2011-12 and now 13.1%. But agriculture still continues to be the main sector because it provides livelihood to a majority of the people. The share of the agricultural sector’s capital formation in GDP declined from 2.2% in the late 1999s to 1.9% at precent.

Meaning, Concept & Definition of Education

1. “Education is the process of developing capabilities of the individuals so that they can adequately respond to their situations”.

2. The modern definition of Education- “It is the production of desirable changes in human behavior- in knowledge (things known), attitudes (things felt) and skills (things done), in all of them or in one or more of them”.

3. Education is the process of giving training and instruction to people to develop their knowledge, abilities, skills, character and mental powers.

Knowledge: It includes-facts, concepts, principles and relationship.

For example: Extension worker educates a farmer on cultivation practices in sweet corn. (Things known)

Attitude: An attitude can be loosely defined as a feeling towards some object, person, and situation or idea. For Example

Extension worker changes the negative attitude of a women farmer and makes them adopt Mushroom cultivation. (things felt)

Skills: Ability to do things.

For example: Extension worker improves skills of a cotton farmer on stem application of pesticide (things done)

Introduction

The word ‘Statistics’ is probably derived from the Latin word ‘status’ (means a political state) or the Italian word ‘statista’ or the German word ‘statistik’, each of which means a ‘political state’. It is used in singular as well as in plural sense. In singular sense, statistics is used as a subject that deals with the principles and methods employed in collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data. In plural sense, statistics is considered as numerical description of quantitative information.

Statistics (Definition), Scope and Limitations

Different persons defined Statistics in different ways. Some of the popular definitions of Statistics are given below.

According to Croxton and Cowden, “Statistics may be defined as the collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of numerical data”.

According to Sir R.A. Fisher “The science of Statistics is essentially a branch of applied mathematics and may be regarded as mathematics applied to observational data”.

Fisher’s definition is most exact in the sense that it covers all aspects and fields of Statistics. On the basis of above ideas, Statistics can be defined as a science which deals with collection, presentation, analysis of data and interpretation of results.

Definition and Concept Agro-Forestry

Agro forestry is an age-old practice of integrating farming with practices, preferably on the same unit of land on sustainable basis. Agro forestry systems have received increasing emphasis in the recent years because of their potential to yield fodder, fuel wood and small timber in addition of food. Shortage of fuel woods for construction and commercial purpose. Implementation of development activities like mining, quarrying and river valley projects are the other reason for deforestation. Shifting cultivation, which is practices in the North-Eastern zone of India, has also affected forest acreage.

Definition: The practices of including trees in crop or animal production agroecosystem. Agro forestry may be defined as an integrated self- sustained land management systems, which involves deliberate introduction / retention of woody components with agriculture crops including pasture / live stock, simultaneous or sequentially on the same unit land, meting the ecological and socio -economic needs of people. Or Agro forestry is a collective name of land use system and technologies where woody perennials are deliberately used form the same land management units as agricultural crops and or animals in the same form of spatial arrangement of temporal sequence. In agro-forestry systems, there is both ecological and economic interaction between different components.

THE AGRO-ECOSYSTEM CONCEPT

An agro-ecosystem is a site of agricultural production farm, for example- understood as an ecosystem. The agro-ecosystem concept provides a framework with which to analyze food production systems as wholes, including their complex sets of inputs and outputs and the interconnection of their component parts.

Because the concept of the agro-ecosystem is based on ecological principles and our understanding of natural ecosystems, the first topic of discussion in this chapter is the ecosystem. We examine the structural aspects of ecosystems their parts and the relationships among the parts and then turn to their functional aspects how ecosystems work. Agro-ecosystems are then described in terms of how they compare, structurally and functionally, with natural ecosystems.

Structure of Natural Ecosystem

An ecosystem can be defined as a functional system of complementary relations between living organisms and their environment, delimited by arbitrarily chosen boundaries, which in space and time appear to maintain a steady yet dynamic equilibrium. An ecosystem thus has physical parts with particular relationshipsthe structure of the system that together take part in dynamic processes the function of the system.

The most basic structural components of ecosystems are biotic factors, living organisms that interact in the environment, and abiotic factors, nonliving physical and chemical components of the environment such as soil, light, moisture and temperature.

India is the second largest producer of fruits with a total production of 81.0 million tons from 6.98 million ha in 2012-13. The leading states in terms of area and production are:

Definition

Plant breeding can be defined as an art, a science, and technology of improving the genetic makeup of plants in relation to their economic use for the mankind.

OR

Plant breeding is the art and science of improving the heredity of plants for the benefit of mankind.

OR

Plant breeding deals with the genetic improvement of crop plants also known as science of crop improvement.

OR

Science of changing and improving the heredity of plants

Significance in Agriculture

The Green Revolution resulted in many fold increase in the food grain production. Crop yields have increased steadily over time, but continuing these increases above the current high levels would be difficult. But in order to meet the demands of the increasing population, the crop production must increase in a sustainable manner. Sustainable increase in the total production without increasing cultivated area represents a huge challenge that can only be met by integrative investigations at the whole plant-plant community level. Improvement of crop production systems will require a thorough understanding of basic principles of yield production. This involves the study of the plant processes responsible for the growth, development and production of economic yield by crop plants, focusing on whole plants and plant communities and not individual plant parts, organs, or cells because most of the processes that control yield operate at the whole plant-plant community level.

The processes responsible for the primary productivity of crop communities are photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, nutrient utilization and how the products of these processes are converted to economic yield and morphogenetic processes.

Crop physiology is the study of plants at the whole-plant and plant-community level of organization and Agronomy is the study of crops and cropping systems at the farm level over a period of time. At this level of organization, the complexity of the system is so large that comprehensive attempts are to be made to examine the mechanisms underlying the crop responses to management or climate.

The scientific approach to agriculture has been to isolate (i.e., the experiments in which everything else is equal except the studied phenomenon) and to reduce (i.e., the process by which, a phenomenon is quantified in terms of one or more essential molecular processes), because the production system is too complex. Whereas the unraveling of crop production systems to simple chemical and physical phenomena has improved our general understanding of the system, it is necessary to understand how these chemical and physically processes interact within a whole plant grown from seed to maturity under natural conditions for this information to be useful in agronomy.

What is natural pest and disease control?

Pests and diseases are part of the natural environmental system. In this system there is a balance between predators and pests. This is nature’s way of controlling populations. The creatures that we call pests and the organisms that cause disease only become ‘pest and diseases’ when their activities start to damage crops and affect yields.

If the natural environmental system is imbalanced then one population can become dominant because it is not being preyed upon. The aim of natural control is to restore a balance between pest and predator and to keep pests and diseases down to an acceptable level. The aim is not to eradicate them altogether, as they also have a role to play in the natural system.

Once a pest or disease has started to attack a crop, the damage cannot be repaired and control becomes increasingly difficult. Where possible, use techniques to avoid or prevent pest and disease attack in the first place.

Role of Seed Technology

1. Improved seed - a carrier of new technologies

The introduction of quality seeds of new varieties wisely combined with other inputs significantly increase yield levels. In India, the cultivation of high yielding varieties have helped to increase food production from 52 million tonnes to nearly 180 million tonnes over a period of 40 years.

2. Improved seed - a basic tool for secured food supply

The successful implementation of the high yielding varieties programme in India has led to a remarkable increase in production and food imports from other counters have been brought down inspite of rapid increase in population.

3. Improved seed-the principal means to secure crop yields in less favourable areas of production

The supply of god quality seeds of improved varieties suitable to these areas is one of the important contributions to secure higher crop yields.

India situated between the latitude of 8°04/ and 37°06/N and longitudes of 68°07 to 97°25, has a geographical area of 329 Mha. Physiographicaly, it can be divided into the three broad regions, viz., Peninsula (a triangular Plateau in the Deccan and South of the Vindhyas), Mountain region of the Himalalayas (Extra-Penninsula), and the Indo-Gangetic Plain separating the these two regions.

Geologically, a great part of the Penninsula is occupied by the gneiss, schists and other rocks of diverse nature. Red soils (Alfisols) generally predominate in this region. The western and central parts predominate in basaltic rock having Black cotton soils of different thickness (Vertisols Inceptisols). The mountain region shows the development of marine sediments of all ages especially in north of the Himalayas.

The vast Indo-Gangetic and other plains of Pleistocene origin are composed of alluvium of the great river systems flowing in this region. The alluvial soils of this region depend on the age of alluvia and degree of development.

Climatically, India shows three distinct seasons, viz. i) cool and mainly dry winters from November to February, ii) hot and mainly dry summers from March to June and iii) monsoon rainy season from mid June to September. Rainfall is received during June to September (from the south-west monsoon) and during December to February (from the north-eastern winds). The Western Ghats and the eastern Himalayas ranges receive maximum rainfall because of their alignment across the summer monsoon winds. The Indo-Gangetic plains receive moderate rainfall; Rajasthan receives little rainfall as the Aravallies lie along the path of the moisture- bearing winds.

Preliminaries

Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 Statistics in singular is used to denote a subject (branch) of science.

Q.2 Statistics in plular is used to denote data or methods.

Q.3 The data first time collected is known as primary data.

Q.4 Primary data is collected from published report.

Q.5 Editing of data is not necessary.

Q.6 Consistency must be maintained in data.

Q.7 Baised and unbiased errors are known as statistical error.

Q.8 Arrangement of data in different, rows & columns is known as classification.

Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 A better and more beautiful way to present the data in a more visual form can be done by means of diagram.

Q.2 Description of data through diagrams and graphs is better for layman.

Q.3 Diagram does not register a meaningful impression almost before we start to think about it.

Q.4 Diagrams are never used by the business man and government agencies for advertisement and educating people.

Q.5 Diagrams do not give visual presentation of data.

Q.6 The diagrams put a rememberance for a longer time in mind of human being.

Q.7 Diagrams facilitate comparison and reveal pattern of data.

Q.8 Diagrams show approximate values of items in data.

Q.9 Diagrams are more attractive, appealing and impressive than tables.

Q.10 Diagrams can be more easily compared and interpreted than the tables.

Q.11 Tables contain precise figures while diagrams indicate approximate figures.

Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 Dispersion of a given set of values, gives an idea about the homogeneity or heterogeneity of the distribution of values.

Q.2 The measure of scatteredness of a set of values about an average is known as the “measure of variation or dispersion”.

Q.3 The measure of dispersion must be based on all the observations.

Q.4 Measure of dispersion should be amenable to further mathematical treatment.

Q.5 Measure of dispersion should be affected as little as possible by fluctuation of sampling.

Q.6 The measures which express the spread of observations in terms of distance between the values of two selected observations, are known as “distance measures” e.g. range and interquartile range (or quartile deviation).

Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 If an experiment is repeated under an identical conditions, we generally come to a result (i.e. outcome) which is unique or certain.

Q.2 In an experiment, the result (outcome) may not be unique but it is one of the several possible outcomes.

Q.3 The phenomena described in Ql, are known as “deterministic or predictable”.

Q.4 In deterministic phenomena, the results can be predicted with certainity

Q.5 A deterministic model stipulates that the conditions under which an experiment is performed, determine the ouctome of the experiment

Q.6 The phenomena which do not lead themselves to deterministic approach, are known as “Unpredictable or probabilistic” phenomena.

Q.7 The phenomena frequently occured in business, economic and social science or even in our day to day life, are known as “deterministic phenomena”.

Q.8 A manufacturer can ascertain the future demand of his product with certainity.

Q.9 A sales manager can not predict with certainity about the sales target next year.

Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 A random variable (r.v) is a real number x connected with the outcomes of a random experiment.

Q.2 In tossing of a balanced die at one time, the number coming on the upper most face of the die is a random variable x which takes any one out of 6 values taken as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

Q.3 Let s be the sample space associated with a given random experiment. A real valued function defned on s and taking values in R (-∞,∞) is called one dimensional random variable.

Q.4 In general a n dimensional random variable is simply a function whose domain is S and whose range is a collection of n-tuples of real members (vectors in n-space).

Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 The average value of a random fenamenon is termed as “Mathematical Expectation” or “Expected value” of random fenamenon.

Q.2 The mathematical expression to compute the expected value of a discrete random variable X with its p.m.f. f(x) is def ned as

Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 The moment generating function (m.g.f) of a random variable X (about origin having the probability function f (x) is defned as

9.1 Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 The probabilistic laws for dif erent values of a random variable are made on the basis of given conditions. T ese conditions are known as "prior considerations".

Q.2 If the probabilistic laws are made for dif erent values of a random variable on the basis of results obtained from an experiment, then such results are known as "a posterior inferences".9.1.1 Discrete Uniform Distribution

Q.3 A random variable X is said to have a discrete uniform distribution over the range [1, n] if its p.m.f is written as

Section-A : Write True / False

10.1.1 Normal Distribution

Q.1 A r.v. X is said to have a normal distribution with parameters (μ, σ²) if its p.d.f. is given by the probability law

11.1 Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 Some assumptions or guesses made about the unknown population parameters, is know as "Statistical hypothesis".

Q.2 For the normal distribution N(μ, σ²), the statement (1) μ = 25.0 and (ii) σ² = 37.0, are known as statistical hypotheses.

Q.3 Let p = 0.5 is the probability of getting a head in single throw of a coin. Ten, this statement is not a statistical hypothesis.

Q.4 The statistical hypothesis under consideration (under test), is known as "Null hypothesis".

Q.5 The null hypothesis is denoted by "Ho".

12.1 Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 Almost all biological data e.g. crop yield, plant height, seed weight, seed size, protein content in pulse, oil content in oil seed etc. are assumed to be normaly distributed.

Q.2 Let X be a normal variable with N(μ, σ²). The random variable Z def ned as Z = (x - μ)/σ, is known as standard normal variable.

Q.3 The standard normal variable Z is denoted as Z ~ N (0, 1).

Q.4 The p.d.f. of random variable Z is given as

13.1 Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 The square of a standard normal variate is known as Chi-square variate with one d.f.

Q.2 If X ~ N(μ, σ²) and Z = (x - μ)/σ then Z² is known as Chi-square variate with 1.d.f.

Q.3 If Xi ~ N(μi, σi), i = 1,2,...., n are n independent normal variates then

14.1 Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 If sample size n is small ie n < 30, then the small sample test is applicable.

Q.2 The exact sample test (small sample test) can be applied to large sample test but the converse is not plaussible.

Q.3 If (x²1 , x²2 ) are two independent chi-square variates with (V1, V₂) degree of freedom then F statistic is def ned as

15.1 Section-A : Write True / False

Q.1 In bivariate distribution if the change in one variable afects a change in the other variable, the variables are said to be correlated.

Q.2 If the change in both the variables takes place in the same direction then the variables are said to have a positive or direct correlation.

Q.3 The pair of variables say, Income and expenditure in house hold or the height and weight of a group of children possess the direct correlation between them.

Q.4 If the change in both the variables takes place in oposite directions, then the variables are said to have "Negative or inverse" correlation.

Q.5 The pairs of variables say (i) Price and demand of a commodities or (ii) Volume and pressure of a perfect gas" have a negative correlation.

Q.6 The two variables are said to have a perfect positive correlation if the deviation in one variable is followed by a corresponding and proportionate deviation in the other variable.

Q.7 There are some funny combinations of variables between which the correlation are said to be "spurious or nonsense".

ABSTRACT
Methanogenesis is a ubiquitous process primarily encountered in anaerobic environments. Methanogens are a group of diverse obligate anaerobic bacteria that produce methane from complex organic matter. Despite their differences in morphological characters and habitat, they show coherence in terms of methane-producing metabolic activity. Being distinctive from all other classical prokaryotes, these are grouped under another kingdom of Archea. Other distinctions of the members are based on their unique cell wall structures and membrane components, as well as differences in their highly conserved gene sequences. Methanogens likely owe their cosmopolitan status to their unique mode of energy metabolism of methane generation. They are active in various ecological niches, from rumens of animals to submarine volcanic vents, sewage digestors and landfills. Methanogenic bacteria are abundant in habitats where high affinity electron acceptors are negligible. Methane fermentation involves bacteria that obtain energy by catalysing anaerobically degradable organic matter to CH₄ and CO₂ by consuming H₂, CO₂, and low-carbon organic acids as their substrates. The gaseous products of methanogenesis are greenhouse gases, thus are major contributors to global warming. Methanogens could be used to produce renewable carbon-neutral energy substitute, biogas. Methane cycling archaea play a major role in global methane production as energy for the future.

ABSTRACT
Methanogens are primarily anaerobic Archaebacteria representing the most primitive earthly creatures, alive since about 3.5 billion years. While oxygen inhibit their activity, they adapt well in a variety of ecological niche, viz., the intestinal tracts of insects and animals including ruminants, sewage digesters, groundwater and deep soil/water, etc. They are involved in biomethanation that converts organic polymers, including the complex recalcitrant lignocelluloses, to CH₄ and CO₂. Enhancing the process by optimising the physical, chemical and molecular parameters is an interesting biotechnology. Molecular research is rapidly progressing on the genomics, gene and its regulation, and methanogenesis as it expresses. Identifying novel species expressing methanogenesis and manipulating the genetic make-up including through cloning in recent years will set goals and leads for future investigations. The biomethanation enzyme Methyl-CoM-reductase (Mcr) constitutes about 10% of the methanogen protein. Due to its abundance and significance, elucidating its structure and its synthesis and regulation mechanism has received much attention recently. Mcr-coding genes from methanogens have been cloned and sequenced. An approach at the molecular level to enhance biomethanation seems to lie in metagenomics. The microbiology, biochemistry, the roles of the participating microbes, their molecular biology and applications in methanogenesis are discussed in this chapter.

ABSTRACT
Methanogenesis is an important biogeochemical process takes place in anaerobic ecological sites. It is the last step of terminal electron accepting process of anaerobic respiration. Methanogens synthesise CH₄ using acetate and CO₂ as precursor molecules. Former types of methanogens are referred as acetoclastic methanogens and the later ones as hydrogenotrophic methanogens. After biogenesis of CH₄, it is emitted to atmosphere and causes global warming. In aerobic ecosystem CH₄ is oxidised by methanotrophs to CO₂ a less global warming molecule. However, in anoxic environment CH4 acts as an electron donor and interacts with various electron acceptors. Methane modulates denitrification, Fe reduction, SO₄ reduction and organic matter decomposition. Manuscript elucidates methanogenesis and highlights the pathways of interaction between methanogenesis and cycling of electron acceptors in various anaerobic ecosystems in relation to global C and N balance.

ABSTRACT
Biomethanation comprises of four interdependent stages in series, hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis and methanogenesis. Methanogenesis, the final stage of biomethanation, is accompanied with the reduction of substrates that include organic acids such as CH₃COOH, and others such as CO₂ and CH₃OH to CH₄ by methanogenic and methanotrophic archaea, usually under anaerobic conditions. Strictly anaerobic methanogenic archaea are found in the ruminant intestine, sewage digester, groundwater and deep soil/water etc. In methanogenesis, H₂ acts as the electron donor while substrates CO₂, CH₃OH and probably CoM-S-S-CoB (for CH₃COOH) act as terminal electron acceptors and reduce to methane, a process known as anaerobic respiration. This conversion is associated with the electrogenic proton motive force along with sodium motive force to drive the ATP synthesis by A0A1 ATP synthase, known as respiratory phosphorylation. The mechanism of conversion of methane from CO₂ by methanogens with cytochromes is same as those without cytochromes except that the reduction of heterodisulphide CoM-S-S-CoB is performed by the membrane-bound VhoACG-HdrDE complex for former while by cytoplasmic MvhADG–HdrABC complex for the later.