eChapters

The quality of irrigation water has a direct influence on soil properties, crop growth and the long-term sustainability of irrigated agriculture. Water containing excessive salts or undesirable proportions of specific ions can create salinity, sodicity and other soil-related problems. This chapter presents the major criteria used for evaluating irrigation water quality. Salinity hazard is considered as an important indicator of the potential for salt accumulation in the soil and consequent restrictions on plant water uptake. Sodium hazard is examined because excessive sodium can adversely affect soil structure and permeability. The chapter also considers the salt index as a measure relevant to the evaluation of irrigation water. Bicarbonate hazard is discussed in relation to the chemical behaviour of irrigation water and its potential effects on soil conditions. Magnesium hazard is another important consideration in assessing the suitability of water for irrigation. By bringing these criteria together, the chapter provides a framework for evaluating irrigation water before application. Proper assessment of water quality is essential for selecting appropriate management practices and preventing long-term degradation of irrigated soils.

Greenhouse

It is constructed by plastic, polythene, and fibreglass material having temperature control and ample light availability needed for propagating plants by seed, cutting and grafting.

Types of greenhouse

1. Based on shape and style: The commonly followed types of greenhouse based on shape are lean–to, even span, uneven span, ridge and furrow, saw tooth and quonset greenhouse.

Lean–to type greenhouse:

• It is limited to single or double–row plant benches with a total width of 7–12 feet.
• It is typically facing south side. It should face the best direction for adequate sun exposure.
• This design makes the best use of sunlight and minimizes the requirement of roof supports.
  • It has the disadvantages: limited space, limited light, limited ventilation and temperature control.

The caudal vena cava is a large unpaired vein which receives blood from the pelvis, pelvic limbs, mammary glands (in females) and scrotum (in males), the abdominal walls, and the viscera of the abdomen and pelvis. It is formed under the body of the fifth or sixth lumbar vertebra by the union of two common iliac veins which in their turn are formed by the union of the internal iliac and external iliac veins of the corresponding side. It passes cranially in the sublumbar region lying slightly to the right of the median plane and to the right of the abdominal aorta. In the cranial part of the abdomen, it follows the abdominal surface of the diaphragm and is embedded in the liver prior to its entry into the thorax through the foramen vena cava in the diaphragm.

In its abdominal course, the caudal vena cava is related dorsally to the sublumbar muscles and right crus of the diaphragm, ventrally to the colon, pancreas and the liver, on its right to the right kidney and the right adrenal and on its left to the abdominal part of the aorta.

Tributaries of caudal vena cava

The common iliac veins are short vessels formed by the union of the internal and the external iliac veins. These are located at the level of the fifth or sixth lumbar vertebra. The left vein crosses the dorsal surface of the aorta to reach the vena cava.

1. Anatomy the word derived from Latin word.

2. Study of internal structure and organization of organisms known as anatomy.

3. The macroscopic study of organisms is known as gross anatomy.

4. The study of parental developmental anatomy is known as developmental anatomy.

5. The study of tissue is known as histology.

6. The study of organization of cell and sub cellular components known as cell biology.

7. The study of nervous system is known as Neuro anatomy.

8. Bottom feeder has sub terminal or inferior mouth.

9. Sturgeon bottom feeder.

10. Grouper and lion fish has superior mouth.

11. In half beaks the lower jaw projects.

1. Giant tube worms - Riftia sp.

2. Novel mussels Bathymodiolus sp.

3. The stock inside the marine protected areas is called as Bank account.

4. Cartilaginous fishes don't have swim bladder.

5. Non- endemic species - Grass carp.

6. Banned species - Tilapia.

7. Non-parasite fish - Echinoderms.

8. Non- Penacid fishery - Maharashtra.

9. Maximum shellfish and finfish exploiting state in India is Kerala.

10. Small reservoir more in Tamil Nadu.

The soil–plant–water relationship integrates the major concepts of soil-water availability, root water uptake and plant transpiration into a unified system. Water movement through the soil and plant is governed by differences in water potential and by resistance within the water-conducting pathway. This chapter examines water uptake by roots and the process of transpiration, emphasizing the continuous movement of water from soil through the plant and ultimately to the atmosphere. Variations in water potential and water flux within the soil–plant system provide the basis for understanding how water is transported under different environmental and soil conditions. The resistance of the water-conducting system is considered as an important factor controlling water movement. The chapter separately discusses water movement through soil and within plants before connecting these processes with water movement from the leaf surface to the atmosphere. Control of transpiration is also examined, linking plant water relations with environmental conditions and crop water use. The chapter provides an integrated framework for understanding soil–plant–water interactions essential for efficient irrigation, crop productivity and sustainable management of water resources.

15.1 INTRODUCTION

Curry leaf is an important perennial tree vegetable cum spice crop of India mostly used in South Indian culinary preparations for flavouring food stuff. It is an underexploited crop. The leaves have slightly pungent, bitter and feebly acidic taste and they retain their flavour and other qualities even after drying. Curry leaf is used in many of the Indian Ayurvedic and Unani prescriptions. It has many industrial values and medicinal uses. Its leaves, roots and bark are credited with tonic, stomachic and carminative properties. Leaves are reported to cure piles and allay heat of body. The green leaves are said to be eaten raw for treatment of dysentery. External application of pulped bark and root is reported to relive eruptions and bites of poisonous animals. An injection of toasted leaves is used to stop vomiting. The tribal people of India use its ground bark to rub on the bitten Part As a snake bite remedy. The powdered leaves are also used to aid in healing of fresh cuts. The dried curry leaf powder is also a good spice powder for use in the food stuff preparation and is exported. Fresh leaves on a steam distillation under high pressure yield 2.6 % (curry leaf oil) volatile oil which is used as fixative for heavy type of soap and perfume. Rectified leaf oil is deep yellow in colour with a strong spicy odour and pungent clove like taste. A volatile oil, a crystalline glucoside ‘Koenigin’ from the leaves and ‘Murayam’ from the flowers are industrial products. Curry leaf is grown on large scale in West Bengal, Assam, Deccan plateau, Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. It is cultivated in Coimbatore, Salem and Tiruchirappalli districts of Tamil Nadu on a commercial scale.

Horse

Lymph nodes of the wall of abdomen and pelvis

The lumbar aortic lymph nodes extend from kidneys to the deep circumflex iliac vessels. These are not clearly distinguishable from the cranial and caudal mesenteric, renal, testicular or ovarian, uterine and iliac lymph nodes.

The internal iliac lymph nodes are placed at about the origin of the iliac arteries. The external iliac lymph nodes are several small nodes situated in the triangular space between the cranial and caudal branches of the circumflex iliac artery.

The deep (internal) inguinal lymph node is not abdominal in position. It is not situated at the pelvic brim. It is one of the group of the lymph nodes of the hind limb.

The superficial (external) inguinal lymph nodes are on either side of the penis and in front of the superficial inguinal ring in male and above the mammary glands as the supramammary lymph nodes in female.

The prefemoral lymph nodes are about a dozen small glands arranged in an elongated mass placed on the medial aspect of the cranial border of tensor fasciae lata and on the caudal branch of circumflex iliac artery.

1. B / R = Biomass per recruit.

2. CPUE Catch Per Unit Effort.

3. E max = Exploitation level which maximizes Y/R.

4. F = Effort.

5. F = rate of fishing mortality.

6. F max = Fishing Mortality generating maximum yield per recruit.

7. F MSY = Fishing effort generating MSY.

8. H = natural mortality factor in Jone's length based cohort analysis.

9. K = parameter of VBGF.

10. Ln =log e , logarithm of base e; Neperian logarithm.

Ten Steps in programme evaluation
i. Identify and describe programme you want to evaluate: The first step of the evaluation process is to identify the object or programme of evaluation. For this purpose, a short written description of the object or programme to be evaluated must be drafted. This description must be formulated in a way that is also comprehensible to outsiders. Relevant items to be included in this description are, for example, the name of the object or programme of evaluation, the expert responsible for it, the employees taking part in it, the goals, scientific references, the contents or topics, the elements, methods, scope, available resources, key figures, past developments, etc.
ii. Identify the phase of the programme
• Design
• Start-up
• Ongoing
• Wrap-up
• Follow-up

18.1 INTRODUCTION

Sorrel is a perennial herb, which is found in grassland habitats throughout Europe from the northern Mediterranean coast to the north of Scandinavia and in parts of Central Asia. It is of two types such as Garden sorrel that is a native of Europe and south western Asia and French sorrel that is originated in the mountains of southern France and the southern and central regions of Europe and south-west Asia. The name sorrel is derived from the Germanic word, Sur and the old French word Surele, both meaning sour. It is primarily used as a culinary herb for its leaves, which are used in salads too. The leaf of this plant resembles that of spinach and have a lemony lettuce flavour and the plant is well known for strong acidity in Europe and the United States. Sorrel is a rich source of potassium, iron and vitamins A, B₁ and C. The flavour of sorrel leaves is mainly due to oxalic acid, which is harmless when consumed in small amount. Owing to high level of vitamin C content, it was rightly believed to protect against scurvy disease. It is a dioecious plant, that bears unisexual flowers, as the male and female flowers appear on different plants. When the plant flowers, they look very attractive and are often used as an ornamental plant.

18.2 CHOICE OF CULTIVARS

In India, it is not a common leafy vegetable and is grown on a limited scale, mostly in kitchen gardens. Even in Europe and other countries, different local strains are grown for both home gardening and commercial cultivation. Profusion is a cultivar, which mutated naturally in France and produces only leaves without forming seed, and hence, the plant always has fresh and ready to pick leaves.

1. The term limnology is derived from Greek word.

2. Limne means lake.

3. The term limnology was coined by Francois-Alponse forel.

4. August Thienemann and EinarNaumann co-founded the international society of limnology.

5. Welch 1935 described about biological productivity.

6. Epheirology is defined as branch of science deals with terrestrial habitats.

7. Peter Erasmus Muller is credited with laying the foundation stone of limnological study.

8. Anton Fritsch could be considered as the Pioneer in Lacustrine limnology.

9. F.Simony (1850) is regarded sometimes as the founder of limnology for his discovery of thermal stratification.

10. Junge and Forbes who were the first to treat the native waters as microcosm.

1. Father of caning Nicholas apart

2. Tin canister invented by Peter Durand

3. Father of modern canning Bryon Dorkin

4. Pure food act - 1906

5. Invention of pressure retort-1874

6. Double seaming machine invented in - 1890

7. OTS can invented in 1904

8. The first Indian canning industry was constructed in 1911 at chaliyam, Kerala

9. PH above 5.3 food known as low acid food

10. PH 4.5-5.3-known as medium acid food

This chapter introduces the historical development and fundamental concepts of immunology. It highlights the contributions of Edward Jenner, Louis Pasteur, Elie Metchnikoff, Paul Ehrlich, Emil von Behring and other pioneering scientists. Important discoveries related to vaccination, phagocytosis, antibody formation, cellular immunity, ELISA, radioimmunoassay and hybridoma technology are addressed. The chapter also explains antigens, immunogens, epitopes, haptens, adjuvants and the desirable characteristics of an effective immunogen. Questions concerning smallpox and rinderpest eradication, vaccine development and primary and secondary immune responses help readers understand the scientific milestones that established immunology as an essential discipline within veterinary and biomedical sciences.

U value : U value is a measure of the heat transmission through a building part (wall or window) or through a given thickness of a material (insulation). U values with lower numbers indicate better insulating properties.
 
Ubiquinone : It is one of the groups of lipid soluble quinones that are found especially in mitochondria and have a long isoprenoid side chain, and function in oxidative phosphorylation as electron carrying coenzymes in electron transport.

1. Protein solubility depends up on the amino acids composition

2. Viscosity is influenced by protein solubility & swelling capacity

3. Thermodynamically unstable mixture of immiscible liquid are called as emulsion

4. Emulsion capacity based on the hydro pobisity charecters of myosin

5. Foam is the analogous to the emulsion

6. Protein solubility is the key requisite for foam formation

7. My of ibrilar are the largest water holding filament

8. Cross linking of protein polymer called Gelation

9. Important key characteristics for gel forming ability is freshness of the fish

10. Margarine produces the golden yellow colour

Horse

The muscles of shoulder region namely the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres major, teres minor and coracobrachialis in horse resemble those of ox. The subscapularis muscle has only a single head of origin in horse as against three heads in ox. The deltoideus muscle has two parts of origin as that of ox but in horse its acromial part is named as cranial part and it arises from scapular spine and the scapular fascia instead of the acromion process. In addition to these muscles, the shoulder in horse is composed of one more muscle named as capsularis. The capsularis is a very fine narrow muscle arising from the caudal part of the rim of the glenoid cavity of scapula and is inserted on the caudal part of the neck below the head of the humerus by insinuating itself between the fibres of brachialis muscle. This muscle is peculiar to solipeds and it raises the capsular ligament of shoulder joint during flexion of the joint.

The muscles of arm in horse are in general similar to those of ox except the following minor differences. The tendon of origin of biceps brachii is adapted to the intertuberal (bisipital) groove. The tensor fasciae antibrachii is thin in front and wide below. The medial head of triceps brachii is less developed and extends from the middle of the medial surface of shaft of humerus. The anconeus is smaller and less voluminous.

Amongst the muscles of forearm and manus, the flexors of carpus especially the flexor carpi radialis, flexor carpi ulnaris and the ulnaris lateralis resemble those of ox. The pronator teres is either vestigial or completely absent. The medial digital extensor is absent. The extensor carpi radialis resembles that of ox. The common digital extensor arises in common with the extensor carpi radialis. Its tendon descends over the synovial capsule of the carpus, passes down the metacarpus and at the fetlock it receives two slips from suspensory ligament to form the broad ligament which is inserted to the pyramidal extensor process of the distal phalanx. The lateral digital extensor is smaller. It arises from humerus and radius. Its tendon is inserted to the prominence on the dorsal (cranial) aspect of the proximal extremity of the proximal phalanx. The extensor carpi obliquus is inserted to the head of the medial small metacarpal bone. The superficial digital flexor does not divide into two parts. Its tendon is reinforced above the carpus by a strong fibrous band- the superior check ligament. The ring for the deep digital flexor is formed entirely by the tendon of superficial digital flexor. The deep digital flexor has same heads of origin as those of ox. Its tendon receives about half way down the metacarpus the inferior check ligament. It is inserted to the semilunar crest and tendinous surface of the distal phalanx.

• Highly susceptible to waterlogging.
• Self-compatible in nature.
• Low chilling peach - <500 hrs chilling requirement.
• Red blush skins are caused due to anthocyanins.
• The yellow colour of peach is due to xanthophylls.
• Acid present - Malic acid
• Prunasin is the principal glycoside present in the pulp.
• Amygdalin is present in the seeds of peach.
• The oil content of peach seeds is 40-50%
• Prunus behmi is a natural hybrid of Almond and Peach.
• - Smooth skinned peaches (Prunus persica var. nucipersica) also called nectarine.
• Yellow fleshed peaches are ideal for table and canning purpose.

This chapter examines cytokines as essential signalling molecules that regulate immune and inflammatory responses. It introduces interleukins, interferons, chemokines, tumour necrosis factors and colony-stimulating factors. Their sources, target cells and biological actions are considered in relation to immune-cell activation, differentiation, migration and communication. The chapter explains important properties such as pleiotropy, redundancy, synergy and antagonism. It also covers antiviral activity, chemotaxis, inflammation, fever and the regulation of humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Special attention is given to excessive cytokine production, cytokine storms and septic shock. These questions help readers understand how cytokines coordinate protective immunity and contribute to immune-mediated disease.

Post Harvest Methods
DSIR/TPDU/TIF 056 and E-28-GO-GOI Research Scheme on “Documentation and Preservation of Agricultural Traditional Knowledge through Farmer Participatory Approach”