eChapters

Brachial plexus (FIG. 5-5 A)

The fore limb is supplied by nerves that extend from the brachial plexus. The brachial plexus is a large wide, flat and thick fascicular anastomosis of nerves formed by the convergence of ventral branches of last three cervical and first two thoracic spinal nerves in ox. It is placed between the scalenus muscle on the lateral wall of thorax and subscapularis and deep pectoral muscles on the costal (medial) surface of the scapula. From this plexus extend the following eleven branches (nerves) which are distributed mainly to the fore limb (thoracic limb) and most of the muscles of the thoracic girdle.

Radiographic positioning refers to placement of the body in respect to linear alignment of X-ray tube and film. Correct positioning is a most important prerequisite to obtain a diagnostic radiograph. Misinterpretations can result from inaccurate positioning.  Label the film before exposure with anatomical lead markers/ X-rite tape. The anatomical markers should be placed in close proximity to the area of interest without overlying important structures. At least two exposures of the part at 900 to each other should be taken to get complete anatomical information of the part.

Introduction

Meat has become an integral part of human food to meet the essential nutrients, like proteins. For a balanced diet, a good biological availability of meat is preferred in the modern day era. The per capita consumption of meat in India is only 14g per day as against the actual requirement of 125g. Non availability of quality meat and its exorbitant prices have restricted meat consumption. Increasing the meat production through intensive rearing of various meat animals will help to meet the ever growing demand of a balanced human diet. In the modern era and educational status social taboos are also getting relegated with need of quality proteins.

The very important role of pigs in human life is control of environmental pollution by scavenging the biological waste. Pig converts biological waste material to quality proteins in the form of pork. Pigs have a rapid growth rate, high reproductive efficacy, require comparatively less space, and can be reared on small scale in backyards or as commercial units.

Introduction
Food Chains
Food chains are made up of organisms that eat and are devoured by one another as a means of transferring energy from the source in plants. “The transfer of energy from plants through a series of organisms with repeated eating and being eaten” is one definition of it.
A food chain is the movement of energy from producers at one trophic level to consumers at the next. In a food chain, energy moves only in one direction. An understanding of food chains can provide important insights into how ecosystems work.
• Grazing food chain
Grazing food chains and detritus food chains are the two main categories of food chains.
The food chain known as grazing begins with living green plants, moves through grazing herbivores, and ends with carnivores. Such a food chain places an immediate demand on ecosystems for solar radiation. From an energy perspective, these chains are very significant.

Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted on a surface by the weight of air above that surface in the atmosphere of earth. The gas molecules of the atmosphere are pulled towards the earth by the force of gravity and hence exert a force on earth surface. In most circumstances atmospheric pressure is closely approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement point. Atmospheric pressure inf luences other weather elements in a significant way. Small changes in air pressure may not be felt, but they are important for bringing a change in weather. Atmospheric pressure can be calculated as the summed weight of all gas molecules between a horizontal plane and top of the atmosphere and divided by the area of the plane. Low pressure areas have less atmospheric mass above their location, whereas high pressure areas have more atmospheric mass above their location.

FACTORS AFFECTING ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Air pressure never remains constant. Air pressure is greatly influenced by air temperature, altitude, water vapour presence in the air, rotation of earth, etc. However, these factors are not independent of each other in affecting the atmospheric pressure.

Temperature: Hot air expands and exerts low pressure. Cold air contracts and exerts high pressure. Thus, increase in temperature decreases the air pressure. Places nearer to equator experience low pressure due to prevalence of high temperature. The air being cold and heavy throughout the year a high pressure belt is created in both polar regions.

Altitude: Pressure varies smoothly from the earth’s surface to the top of the mesosphere. The pressure depends on the density or mass of the air. The density of air depends on its temperature. The density of air decreases with increase in height so the pressure also decreases with increase in height. At low altitudes above the sea level, the pressure decreases by about 1.2 kPa for every 100 metres.

Water vapour: Water vapour content of air is low in cold areas than that in dry areas. Hence, moist air of high temperature in dry areas exerts less pressure compared to cold air.

Livestock population meet the protein requirement of humans in addition to meeting from plants. The food chain starts from fodder crops to animals and from animals to humans. In human physiology, digestion of plant protein is much easier than animal protein, but however the digestion depends on climate (temperate climate, sub-tropical climate, tropical climate etc.,) wherein human kind live. Similar to crops, there is strong interaction between livestock and meteorological weather elements (temperature, relative humidity, wind etc.). But detailed study has not been published elaborately in scientific journals in the past. The weather elements have greater influence on livestock productivity in terms of milk, meat, skin, wool etc., pest and disease infestation and their housing needs. In this chapter how weather elements influence shed management, pest and disease problem and animals’ productivity and are discussed. In majority of the Veterinary and Animal Science University in India, they have one division on animal climatology, wherein both research and extension aspects are being attended. However, in depth research is the need of the present decade, since little works have been done in the past on animal climatology.

Irrespective of weather elements, the heat stress due to the combination of temperature and relative humidity plays important role in affecting the productivity of animals. There is a range of thermal conditions within which animals are able to maintain a relatively stable body temperature by means of behavioral and physiological means. Heat stress results from the animal’s inability to dissipate sufficient heat to maintain homeothermy (Sejian et al., 2017). High ambient temperature, relative humidity and radiant energy compromise the ability of the animals to dissipate heat. As a result, there is an increase in body temperature, which in turn initiates compensatory and adaptive mechanisms to re-establish homeothermy and homeostasis. Homeostasis refers to the tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state that is optimal for functioning. Animals have a specific balanced or normal body temperature. When there is a problem with the internal functioning of animal body, this temperature may increase, signaling imbalance. As a result, body attempts to solve the problem and restore homeostasis for normal body temperature. These readjustments generally referred as adaptations and this is essential for survival of the animals.

The word ‘statistics’ has been derived from the Latin Word ‘Status’ which means ‘Political State’. The word statistics has been coined by Gottfried Aschenwall, a German Political Scientist. Ronald Aylmer Fisher is regarded as father of modern statistics. The word statistics has meaning both in plural and singular sense. In plural sense, it means quantitative/qualitative figures. For example, the area under food grains in different states of India, the production of guava in different states of India, germination percentage of seeds, etc.. In singular sense, it means as a subject i.e., method of dealing with the quantitative/qualitative information.

Statistics is defined as scientific method which deals with collection, organization presentation, analysis and interpretation of data. It is included under both science and arts. Statistics is used as a tool to obtain knowledge on other subjects of science.

The main arterial trunk that supplies blood to the hind limb is the external iliac artery. As this trunk passes down through different segments (regions) of the limb it is differently named according to that segment or the region. In the abdomen it is named as iliac, in the thigh region as femoral, in the leg region as tibial and popliteal and down that the metatarsal artery and lastly the digital.

External iliac artery

The external iliac artery arises from the abdominal aorta ventral to the fifth or sixth lumbar vertebra. It descends at the side of the pelvic inlet ventrally and caudally along the tendon of psoas minor, crosses the tendon, reaches the cranial border of the pubis, gains the space between the sartorius and pectineus muscles and then continues in the thigh (femoral region) as the femoral artery. In this course it is covered by peritoneum and is related laterally to the psoas minor, sartorius and iliacus muscles, medially to the common iliac vein and caudally to the external iliac vein. The following are the collateral branches of the external iliac artery.

1. Biotechnology arises from the field of Zymotechnology.

2. The word Biotechnology was coined by Karl ereky in 1919.

3. OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (1981).

4. National Biotechnology Board - 1982 by GOI.

5. ICGEB International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Bio-technology (1988).

6. Cohen & Boyer - Recombinant DNA technology (1973).

7. Restriction enzymes are called as Molecular scissors.

8. Frederick Sanger - DNA Sequencing techniques.

9. Modified red glow zebra fish came on to the market in 2004.

10. Tissue culture Osowski 1914.

11. The term molecular biology was used by Warren weaver.

Banana (Musa sp), is consumed both as a fruit and vegetable. The sweet desert cultivars are generally called bananas and the starchy cooking types are called plantains. It is an important food crop throughout the tropics. References to the banana is frequently made in the Vedic literature, where its use in religious rituals is quite common. Today, it is a leading tropical fruit in the world market with a high degree of export potentiality. Bananas arrives at the world markets the year round. Though India is the largest producer of banana in the world, Ecuador, Hondurus, Columbia, Costa Rica, and Panama are the leading banana exporter, while USA, Japan, Germany, France and UK are the main importing counties.

Banana is believed to have originated in the warm moist tropical regions of SouthEast Asia. Its cultivation is confined to region between 30° N and 30° S of Equator. Banana is grown in many countries namely India, Philippines, Thailand, Uganda, Zaire, Tanzania, Ivory coast, Burundi, Columbia, Brazil, Ecuador, Venezuela, Bangladesh, the Caribbean Islands, the canary Island, USA(Florida), Egypt, Australia, Sri Lanka.

Banana belongs to the family Musaceae and genus Musa. There are several species of Musa which involves both dipoilds and triploids. Most of the cultivated bananas are triploids. They are further classified based on their genomic status. Bananas and plantains are today grown in every humid tropical region and constitute the 4th largest fruit crop of the world, followed by the grape, citrus fruits and the apple.

Varieties/Cultivars: Though there are more than 25 different kinds of bananas grown in India, Grand Naine, Robusta, Poovan, Ney poovan, Rasthali, Karpuravalli, Tellachakrakeli, Red Banana, Nendran, Monthan, Batheesa, Hill Banana (Veerupakshi & Sirumalai) are the popular varieties grown all over the country with different local names.

1. Genetics is a branch of science which deals with study of heredity variation among related organism.

2. UK established the Institute of the Biotechnology.

3. ICGEB-international center for genetic engineering and biotechnology which has two center India and Italy.

4. When cross is made between two parents differing in two characters known as dihybrid cross.

5. Mendel's first law Law of segregation.

6. Mendel's second law law of independent assortment.

7. When F, cross with its parent it is known as back cross.

8. When F, cross with recessive parent is called as test cross.

9. Monohybrid test cross gives 1:1 phenotype.

10. Dihybrid test cross gives 1:1:1:1 phenotype ratio.

Choosing the appropriate construction materials requires evaluating their properties, cost, availability, and how well they suit the particular project. Common materials include concrete, steel, bricks, wood, stone, glass, and various plastics. Key specifications often considered are strength, durability, fire resistance, and environmental impact.
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION FOR TRADITIONAL GREENHOUSE
Traditional greenhouses are built using a variety of materials that ensure durability, insulation, and protection for plants, while also allowing sunlight to penetrate. The selection of materials depends on factors such as cost, climate, and the greenhouse’s intended purpose. Here are some of the common materials used in constructing traditional greenhouses:
1. Wood: Wood has been a traditional and widely used material in greenhouse construction due to its affordability and ease of use. Treated wood, such as cedar or redwood, is commonly chosen for its resistance to decay and insects. Wood offers good insulation and stability, making it suitable for different climates.
2. Galvanized Steel: Steel frames provide exceptional structural support and are known for their strength and durability. Galvanized steel is coated to prevent rust and corrosion, extending its lifespan. Steel frames are capable of withstanding heavy loads and harsh weather conditions.
3. Aluminum: Aluminum frames are lightweight and resistant to corrosion, making them a favored choice for greenhouse construction. They are easy to assemble and require little maintenance over time.
4. PVC Pipes: PVC (polyvinyl chloride) pipes are cost-effective and simple to work with, making them ideal for smaller or temporary greenhouses. They provide a basic, lightweight framework that is easy to assemble.

Game theory : How to win at Twister? No, but maybe at monopoly. Game theory is a technique for analysing how people, firms and governments should behave in strategic situations (in which they must interact with each other), and in deciding what to do must take into account what others are likely to do and how others might respond to what they do. For instance, competition between two firms can be analysed as a game in which firms play to achieve a long-term competitives advantage (perhaps even a monopoly). The theory helps each firm to develop its optimal strategy for, say, pricing its products and deciding how much to produce; it can help the firm to anticipate in advance what its competitor will do and shows how best to respond if the competitor does something unexpected. It is particularly useful for understanding behaviour in monopolistic competition. In game theory, which can be used to describe anything from wage negotiations to arms races, a dominant strategy is one that will deliver the best results for the player, regardless of what anybody else does. One finding of game theory is that there may be a large first-mover advantage for companies that beat their rivals into a new market or come up with an innovation. One special case identified by the theory is the zero-sum game, where players see that the total winnings are fixed; for some to do well, others must lose. Far better is the positive-sum game, in which competitive interaction has the potential to make all the players richer. Another problem analysed by game theorists is the prisoners’ dilemma. (See also nashequilibrium).

GATT : See general agreement on tariffs and trade and world trade organisation.

GDP : Gross domestic product, a measure of economic activity in a country. It is calculated by adding the total value of a country’s annual output of goods and services. GDP = private consumption + investment + public spending + the change in inventories + (exports-imports). It is usually valued at market prices; by subtracting indirect tax and adding any government subsidy, however, GDP can be calculated at factor cost. This measure more accurately reveals the income paid to factors of production. Adding income earned by domestic residents from their investments abroad, and subtracting income paid from the country to investors abroad, gives the country’s gross national product (GNP).

Sites for surgical interventions

Luxation of patella in cattle and horses

The luxation of patella is a condition wherein the patella of the stifle joint (femoropatellar articulation) is locked above the medial ridge of the trochlea of the femur.

Anatomy of femoropatellar articulation of the stifle joint

The stifle joint is a composite joint formed in two parts. One of these is an articulation between the condyles of distal extremity of femur and the condyles of the proximal extremity of tibia (femoro-tibial articulation) and the other is the articulation between the trochlea of the distal extremity of the femur and the articular surface of the patella (femoro-patellar articulation).

The trochlea of the femur consists of two asymmetrical ridges separated by a groove. The medial ridge is more prominent, wider and a little more extended dorsally than the lateral ridge. The two ridges converge ventrally. The articular surface of the patella is more or less quadrilateral or triangular with the base above and apex below. It has a vertical ridge in the middle and it separates the two concave areas of which the medial one is larger than the lateral. The patella is fastened against the trochlea with the help of three types of ligaments. One of these is the capsular ligament which is attached to the periphery of the articular areas of the two segments of the joint. The other one is the medial and lateral collateral ligaments. The third set of ligaments is the patellar (straight) ligaments.

The carambola, Averrhoa carambola L., is believed to have originated in Malaysia and the Molucca but it has been cultivated in southeast Asia for many centuries. It belongs to the family Oxalidaceae. The carambola, Averrhoa carambola L., is usually called balimbing, belimbing, or belimbing manis (“sweet belimbing”), to distinguish it from the bilimbi or belimbing asam, A. bilimbi L. In Ceylon and India, the carambola has the alternate names of kamaranga, kamruk, or other variants of the native kamrakh.

Cultivars/Varieties: Sweet and sour forms are recognized a cultivar in India. In countries like Australia, Japan, Taiwan and, USA named cultivars are grown.

Uses

Fruits are mainly used for dessert purpose. Slightly unripe fruits are used for jelly and pickle. Unripe fruit is also used for dying as it contains potassium oxalate. It is a popular substitute for tamarind in cooking. The acid types of carambola have been used to clean and polish metal, especially brass, as they dissolve tarnish and rust. The juice will also bleach rust stains from white cloth. Unripe fruits are used in place of a conventional mordant in dyeing. Carambola wood is white, becoming reddish with age; close-grained, medium-hard. It has been utilized for construction and furniture.

The Laboratory Worker is Surrounded by Many Dangers such as from..........

Handling of infectious materials.

Handling of broken glassware.

Accidental spill of corrosive reagents.

Swallowing of corrosive reagents such as concentrated Sulphuric acid,

Hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, trichloroacetic acid etc.

Swallowing of infectious specimen.

Inhalation of poisonous fumes.

Infection in the conduct of necropsies.

Potential hazards in the form of inflammable chemicals and gas leakages.

Samples having size, n - 30 are known as large sample. For large values of n (i.e., for n - 30), almost all the distributions are very closely approximated by normal distribution. Thus in this case we apply the normal test, which is based upon the area property of the normal probability curve. Large Sample Test is also known as Z-test or SND (Standard Normal Deviate) test.

Introduction

Environmental problems have come to the forefront as one of the most important issues in transport policy. For a number of pollutants the road transport sector is one of the most significant contributors to environmental pollution. Vehicular emissions have been identified as one of the major contributors in deteriorating air quality in the urban centers. The problem has further been compounded by the concentration of large number of vehicles and comparatively high motor vehicle/population ratios in these cities. Substantial SPM, RSPM CO₂ and No_x are emitted. The problem of air pollution has assumed serious proportion in some of the major metropolitan cities of India. Therefore, CPCB has 296 monitoring stations all over India covering major cities.

The air pollution situation in most of the cities is still far from satisfactory. In India the major air pollution reason is automotive smoke and smoke from industries. New channels are also publishing pollution levels in selected metropolitan cities. The most polluted city in Asia is Pune. The SPM and RSPM levels are displayed at various squares to create awareness among the masses.

Smaller cities like Nanded, Parbhani and Yavatmal are not covered under National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring (NAAQM) scheme of Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). The National Ambient Air Quality Standards for suspended particulate matters (SPM) are based on gravimetric measurement. Standards for Respirable suspended particulate matters (RSPM) are also based on gravimetric measurement. The development in terms of number of vehicles and building construction has also reached at the doors of these cities and towns. Nanded city having population of 5.5 lakhs has total number of Auto rickshaws more than 5,000. In the present study, Nanded city has been selected to check particulate matters and gaseous pollutants. Since, the city is one of the important Pilgrimage and commercial centre.

1. Bacterial (Prokaryote) Genome

The chromosome of most bacteria is a single super coiled double stranded circular DNA molecule. A complex packaging mechanism is necessary in order to ensure that the entire DNA is folded within the bacterial cell in a manner, which will not inhibit transcription nor allow entanglement of the two daughter strands to occur during replication (Highly condensed >10 mg/ml in region less than l ìm in diameter). This is achieved by two main mechanisms.

• First the DNA is folded into between 40-100 loops
• Second each of the quasicircles is it self super coiled independently of the others each loop are abolished by Ribonuclease.

Deoxyribonucleic remove the super helical nature of the loops, though limited treatment with this enzyme will attack only a small number of the loops and therefore leads to removal of only some of the super coiling. The intact folded chromosome or nucleoid can be isolated in the presence of non ionic detergents and high molarities of salt in two possible forms free and membrane associated. The free form which sediments at 1600-1700s consists of about 60%DNA, 30%RNA and 10%protein the bulk of which is the enzyme RNA polymerase. The membrane bound form contains an additional 20% of membrane-attached protein. Bacterial genome size ranges from 580 to 9900kbp, & the average gene size is constant from 900 to 1100bp of which 87-94% are protein coding (Rickettisa’s 76% and Borelia Plasmid’s 41% are exceptions).

Introduction
The lives of the local population are disrupted by large-scale projects such as dam construction, mining, highway construction, or the designation of a national park, and they are frequently forced to relocate to a new location. Relocating individuals is a significant challenge as it diminishes their capacity to survive solely on their customary natural resource base and intensifies psychological strain. 33 to 56 million people have been displaced by 54 projects in India over the past 50 years.
Resettlement and Rehabilitation of People
Major projects like dams, mines, expressways, and other industrialization-related projects, as well as some conservation strategies like the creation of national parks, can cause disruptions to people’s lives and force them to relocate to an alternate location. Relocating individuals from their birthplace is a grave concern as it diminishes their capacity to survive only on their customary natural resource base, so adding to their psychological strain. It is difficult for the displaced individuals to adjust to a new lifestyle in a new location. Due to the indirect effects of the Green Revolution—the building of thousands of dams since India’s independence—thousands of people havebeen displaced. These impoverished locals have essentially paid for the construction of the dams. Even if the government has set enough time to relocate these displaced individuals and offer them a sufficient package for rehabilitation, this rarely happens.