eChapters

Abstract

Food lost during the production chain is referred to as postharvest loss. Reducing postharvest loss can effectively feed starving mouths while conserving resources and decreasing the pressure to produce more. There are five main areas where postharvest loss can be reduced – harvest, storage, transportation, processing, and retail. New approaches and technologies in each of these areas will increase the amount of food available for human consumption. The total loss due to poor post- harvest processing of agricultural products in India when valued in terms of monetary reflects a tremendous loss in the economy. Annual value of harvest and post-harvest losses of major agricultural produces at national level to be of the order of Rs. 92,651 Crore calculated using production data of 2012-13 at 2014 wholesale prices. Deficits in food items or financial loss should not have occurred if postharvest losses were reduced through proper processing and preservation from harvest to consumption. Both the government and private sector need to invest in research so as to improve and modernize post-harvest facilities for attaining more efficient market infrastructure and distribution channels. Research and extension activities have to be closely coordinated particularly in the public sector for the benefit of farmers, traders and consumers.

There are number of internal and external factors that affect the production performance of animals, among which parasites and parasitism are major of concern constraints to animal’s productivity especially in tropical countries. Feed intake and nutrient requirements have been recognized for long time as an important parameter for determining the efficiency of animal production. Most of the parasitic infection in domestic animals is caused by gastrointestinal nematode, which may result in depression in appetite, impairment in GI functions, alteration in protein, energy and mineral metabolism and changes in water balance. Nutrition can affect the ability of the host to cope with the consequences of parasitism and to contain and eventually to overcome parasitism. Since it is proposed that the host gives priority to the reversal of the pathophysiological consequences of parasitism over other body functions, it is to be expected that improved nutrition will always lead to improved resilience. On the other hand, it is proposed that the function of growth, pregnancy and lactation are prioritized over the expression of immunity. Improved nutrition may affect the degree of expression of immunity during these phases and can thus influence the resilience and resistance of host to parasite infection.

Introduction 
It is commonly acknowledged that the swift rise in urbanization and population expansion is the primary reason for the increasing consumption of fossil fuels, which ultimately results in the exhaustion of fuels generated from petroleum. Globally, the scarcity of fossil fuels poses a significant challenge. Furthermore, there are significant worries about the negative impacts of the heavy reliance on petroleum-based fuels on the economy, energy and the environment conservation. Consequently, extensive research has been dedicated to identifying alternative sources that can mitigate the dependence on fossil fuels [1]. Biofuels have garnered worldwide attention as a potential substitute for fossil fuel-derived fuels, given their distinctive qualities [2]. Utilizing a variety of plant sources, including sugarcane, corn, soybeans, vegetables, palm oil, and Jatropha (often used in Africa), biofuel production is progressing on almost every continent. Bioethanol is successfully used as a biodiesel in addition to gasoline for otto-cycle engines in nations like the USA and Brazil [3]. Conversely, biodiesel represents a significant category of biofuel capable of partially or fully replacing diesel obtained from fossil fuels. Biodiesel is made via a process called trans-esterification that uses renewable biolipids [4]. Biodiesel can be produced from oil that comes from nonedible agricultural seeds or kernels [5]. Furthermore, edible oils from plants such as sunflower, palm, and soybean are used as feedstocks to produce biodiesel [6]. In the field of biofuel research, nanotechnology and nanomaterials have proven to be useful instruments for improving output quality at a reasonable cost. Algae stands out prominently in discussions about biofuel production due to concerns related to food resources. Types of biofuels and their sources are represented in the (Fig.1). The use of crops and plants yielding food is considered unsuitable for prioritizing biofuel production due to potential disruptions in food supply. Notably, various algal species vary in their production capacity. The utilization of nanoparticles (NPs) is advantageous in biofuel synthesis due to their unique characteristics, including a substantial surface area to volume ratio, adsorption capacity, high crystallinity, and stability. This distinguishes them from competing sources as better possibilities [7]. In the process of creating biofuels, metal oxide nanoparticles and carbon nanotubes are widely used as nano-catalysts because of their extra characteristics that allow for their high potential recovery [8]. The overall procedure for producing biodiesel on a small scale and for experimental purposes using algae are shown in the (Fig.2).

The North Eastern region stretches from 21°25' to 29° 28' N and 80° 4' to 97°25' E and covers a total geographical area of 2.55 lakh square kilometer sharing about 8 percent of the country’s geographical area. The NE states, otherwise known as eight jewels, which are Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura and Sikkim. This region is characterized by inaccessibility, marginality, fragility, cultural heterogeneity, ethnicity, rich bio-diversity, low livestock and crop productivity. These states are the reservoirs for genetic diversity of tuber crops like Colocasia, Xanthosoma, Alocasia, elephant foot yam, Dioscorea and other minor tuber crops. The annual precipitation in the region is about 2450mm and maximum rainfall is received from South West monsoon.

Introduction

Climate change is of great concern to India in view of food and nutritional security of its ever growing population. The impacts of climate change are global, but Indian subcontinent is more vulnerable due to dependence of its large population on agriculture. It can cause millions of deaths a year worldwide and costing more than a trillion of US dollar. Climate change has direct effect on agriculture due to 0.74°C average global increase in temperature in the last 100 years and atmospheric CO₂ concentration having increased from 280 ppm (1750) to 400 ppm (2013). These changes have direct effect on growth and multiplication/fecundity, spread and severity/infestation of many plant pathogens/insect pests, which in turn are affecting the pattern of incidence of pests (including diseases). Changing pest scenario due to climate change has warranted the need for future studies on such models which can predict the severity of important pathogens of major crops in real-field conditions. Simultaneously, pest management strategies may be reoriented to cope up with changing scenario for sustainable food production.

Background

Sheep and goats are the poor man’s cow because of the lower capital investment, and production costs. Also supplies milk quantities that are suitable for immediate household consumption thereby reducing problems of milk storage and marketing. Small ruminants, goats and sheep, mainly localized in the arid, semi-arid and mountainous areas of the country, have multi-faceted utility in terms of wool, meat, milk, skins, (mo)hair/pelts, manure and have also acquired socio-cultural niches in many communities (Kosgey and Okeyo, 2007). Goat and sheep milk has many advantages over other livestock species’ milk being easy in digestion, non-allergic, naturally homogenized, improves immunity as it has antifungal and anti-bacterial properties. However, rearing small ruminants for meat is more popular among farmers as price of chevon and mutton are very high, continuously increasing over the years and sale of male for meat is easy, steady and accessible at farmer’s place or local places unlike milk, skin and fibre. Thus, small ruminants (SR) occupy a promising agrarian and economic niche in low to medium input production systems, not suitable for growing crops and dairy farming (Devendra and Chantalakhana, 2002), mostly driven by small and marginal farmers and landless laborers. Their meat and milk production represents 4.8% and 3.4% of the total meat and milk produced, respectively, in the world.

7.1 Learning Objectives
After comprehending this unit, we will be capable to:
i) Understand the conception of regression;
ii) Appreciate the significance of regression;
iii) Understand the difference between regression and correlation;
iv) Know about the regression lines;
v) Anticipate the difference between simple regression and multiple regression.

7.2 Introduction

Correlation is followed by linear regression. Regression is applied for forecasting the value of an unknown variable with the help of a known variable. The forecasted variable is called the dependent variable. On the contrary, an independent variable is used for forecasting the value of a dependent variable. If you desire to know, for instance, if exam achievement can be anticipated based on review time, whether cigarette consumption can be predicted based on smoking length, and so on, you may use linear regression. You must utilize multiple regressions if we deal with more than one independent variable rather than simply one.

Different crops are grown over a wide range of agroecosystems. Though the crops are raised in varied climates, ranging from very hot to very cold, and very wet to very dry, across temperate, tropical and semiarid zones, they are very sensitive to climate. The crop production is dependent on climatic parameters like rainfall, light, temperature, relative humidity and carbon dioxide concentration. Each kind of cultivated crop plants has its own optimum growth requirements. Breeding and selection of new cultivars have allowed for a greater adaptability to less favourable growing conditions than was possible in the past, but the inherent climatic requirements of a specific kind of crop have not changed materially.

CLIMATIC NORMALS FOR CROPS

Crop management is very much about managing climate risk so as to have financially viable and sustainable agricultural systems. Professor Henry Nix of the Australian National University posed three questions that need to be addressed when considering what crop can be grown where (Nix, 1981).

1. For any given crop which areas offer the greatest biophysical advantages?
2. For any given area which crops offer the greatest advantages?
3. For any given crop and area how much productivity be raised and sustained?

• General considerations

 • Quality management principles

 • Objectives of 9001:2008

 1. Scope

 2. Normative reference

 3. Terms and definitions

 • Main clauses and sections of ISO 9001:2008

 4. Quality management system

 5. Management responsibility

 6. Resource management

 7. Product realization

 8. Measurement, analysis and Improvement

4.1    Functions of Plant Nutrient and Deficiency Symptoms Function of Plant Nutrient
    
    1. Nitrogen
    2. Phosphorus
    3. Potassium
    4. Calcium
    5. Magnesium
    6. Sulphur
    7. Manganese
    8. Molybdenum
    9. Copper
    10. Boron
    11. Zinc
    12. Iron
    13. Chlorine
    14. Nickel
    15. Sodium
    16. Cobalt
    17. Silicon

Introduction

Pulse production in India has fluctuated widely with no long-term trend, leading to a steady decline in per capita availability per day, i.e. from 60.7 grams to 33.40 grams during 1951 to 2001, while its average requirement is about 65 gram per day per head. The pulses used to serve a low cost food to meet the protein requirement of a large sector of people in India. But, the pulses are becoming out of reach for the common people of country because of its continuing shoring prices. A Technology Mission on Pulse production was launched by Government of India in 1986-87 as a special drive to increase the pulse production in the country. The vision of Technology Mission of Pulse is attaining self reliance in pulses for household nutritional security and sustainability of the production system. The mission statement was to increase Pulse production from existing (IX plan) 131.4 lakh tonnes to 162 lakh tonnes; Productivity from 594 kg/ha to 702 kg/ha and per capita availability of pulses from 35 g to 40 g per day at affordable price. Unfortunately, the country has not been able to achieve self-sufficiency in the pulse production. During the last 40 years, the acreage under pulse crops and its production remained almost between 21-24 million hectares and 10-15 million tonnes, respectively. Consequently, the country has had to depend on import of pulses every year to meet the part of its shortage. The National Commission of Agriculture had estimated that the country should plan to produce about 25 million tonnes of pulses by the end of 2000, but we could achieve only about 14 million tonnes. Presently, the area and the production of pulse crops account for about 18.50 and 7.20 per cent (2003-04) of total area under foodgrains and total food grains production in the country, respectively.

Pomology: Pomology is a branch of horticulture that deals with the cultivation of fruit crops. When given a liberal and flexible translation, the word “pomology” means the science of fruit. The term is derived from the Latin word pomum, which means “Fruit” and the Greek term logy, which means “Science.

Fruit

“A true botanical fruit is defined as a mature or ripened ovary with or without accessory organs.” Classifcation refers to the grouping of individuals with similar identities, related in genetic make up, evolution or climatic requirements. The major units of classification are order, family, genus, sub family, species, variety/cultivars and clone or strain. All fruit crops bear flower and seed (spermatophyte) and belongs to class Angiosperm except in (Pinus gerardiana) of gymnosperm.

Most of the fruits are covered under the dicotyledonous families of Angiosperm except banana, pineapple, date and coconut which belong to monocotyledonous families e.g. Musaceae, Bromeliaceae and Arecaceae (Palmae) respectively. The families of economically important fruits include Rosaceae (all pome, stone fruits and strawberry), Rutaceae (citrus fruits, bael and woodapple), Musaceae (banana and plantain), Vitaceae (grapes and Anacardiaceae (Mango, cashew and pistachio nut, hog plum) etc.

Abstract

Various cropping systems and ecologies illustrate the positive use of chemicals both as fertilizers and pesticides and organic/biological sources within the frame work of Integrated Plant Nutrition and Plant Protection System (IPPS). While considering the organic/biological sources, green manures seem to be the best alternative that may largely suffice to the organic matter requirements of the soil under crop cultivation. Green manuring can be defined as a practice of ploughing or turning into the soil undecomposed green plant tissues for the purpose of improving physical structure as well as fertility of the soil. “Green manure” refers to fresh plant matter, which is added to the soil largely for supplying the nutrients contained in its biomass. The agricultural practices consisting of growing and ploughing under a green crop or addition of a green organic matter in the form of leaves and other succulent parts from outside to improve soil productivity is known as green manuring. In this review, advantages of green manuring, decomposition of green manure,   process of decomposition, factors affecting decomposition and effects of green manuring have been discussed in detail.

Introduction

Research and development (R&D) is one of the main components to tackle the problems persisting or likely to take place in future. Priority areas of research are depending upon the overall situation and requirements of the problem under consideration. Under these broad areas, topic of interest for research may be varying at different geographical level from household to nation or global. If it is addressing vast geographical area like states, nations, regions and/or global, there may be many individuals/groups/institutions are working over similar type of problems. With the growing communication facilities and rising fund requirements, collaborative research programmes emerged to provide effective and economic solution to the problem with respect to time, money and manpower etc. Earlier, it was limited to high priority areas like defense and long run planning of the nations or kingdom at nation or state level. Declining environmental conditions and biological diversity became global concern in seventh decade of twentieth century. To tackle this problem, The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm) resolved to establish the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1972. Further, to speed up the progress, global community through world leaders had identified two burning priority areas during conference United Nations (U N) Environmental Programme Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992, well known as Earth Summit. One of those two priority areas was Biological Diversity. To address the issues at global levels, The Convention on Biological Diversity was signed by party nations, which was later ratified by the 187 countries. India is also one of the signatory nations and need to fulfill some time bound commitments. Moreover, later, importance of biodiversity and germplasm has been underlined by different forum at regional and global level for its present and future values in the life of human kind. Countries and various geographical regions are now becoming more and more aware about its judicious exploitation, conservation and sustained higher output over period of time.

Electrophoresis is an analytical method frequently used in molecular biology and medicine. It is applied for the separation and characterization of proteins, nucleic acids and subcellular-sized particles like viruses and small organelles. Its principle is that the charged particles of a sample migrate in an applied electrical field. An electric current is passed through a medium containing the molecules, and each molecule travels at a different rate depending on its electrical charge, size and shape. Separation by electrophoresis is based on these differences. In electrophoresis, agarose and acrylamide gels are used for electrophoresis of nucleic acids and proteins.

What is Gel Electrophoresis?

A gel is a solid form. The term electrophoresis describes the migration of charged particle under the influence of an electric field. Electro refers to the energy of electricity. Phoresis, from the Greek verb phoros, means “to carry across.” Thus, gel electrophoresis refers to the technique in which molecules are forced across a span of gel, motivated by an electrical current. Activated electrodes at either end of the gel provide the driving force. A molecule’s properties determine how rapidly an electric field can move the molecule through a gelatinous medium.

10.1 Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to:
i) Understand the concept and types of hypotheses in hypothesis testing;
ii) Differentiate between one-tailed and two-tailed tests and recognize their applications;
iii) Grasp the implications of Type I and Type II errors in hypothesis testing;
iv) Explore the significance level and its connection to confidence limits;
v) Understand the concept of degrees of freedom in hypothesis testing;
vi) Familiarize yourself with the stepwise approach to hypothesis testing for effective application.

10.2 Introduction

In this chapter, we explore the fundamental concept of hypothesis testing, a cornerstone in statistical analysis. We begin by exploring the nature of hypotheses and their types, distinguishing between one-tailed and two-tailed tests and understanding their respective applications. We then explain the intricacies of Type I and Type II errors, crucial pitfalls to avoid in hypothesis testing. Additionally, we probe into the significance level, its relationship to confidence limits, and its role in determining the strength of our conclusions. Furthermore, we explain the concept of degrees of freedom, an essential factor in hypothesis testing that affects the reliability of our results. Finally, we guide you through a stepwise approach to hypothesis testing, ensuring a comprehensive understanding and effective application of these concepts in practical scenarios. Through this journey, you will not only grasp the mechanics but also appreciate the profound impact of hypothesis testing in drawing meaningful conclusions from data in our data-driven society.

Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.), a subtropical perennial fruit tree, belongs to family Sapindaceae and is indigenous to China. Its cultivation spread to the neighbouring countries of the south-east Asian region and other countries. The fruit of litchi is small, heart-shaped, conical or spherical in shape and pinkish red to bright-red in colour, with varying colour intensity in different cultivars. The pulp of fruit is crispy and grape-like in texture, very succulent and aromatic and is generally characterized by a sweet, acid, juicy and soft taste. Because of these reasons, litchi is highly prized in its fresh form as well as in different processed formulations. The total litchi production is about 24,00,000 tonnes from the net cultivated are of about 8,00,000 ha. The main litchi-producing countries are China, India and Thailand, whereas it is commercially grown also in many other countries. Of the total world litchi production, China and India contribute about 90%. Although litchi plants are long-lived, even then new plantings of this fruit are being done regularly, ensuring the continuous growth of production at the global level. In India, where this fruit can be grown in off season also in the southern states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, the litchi production is about 7,37,200 tonnes from an area of 99,170 ha (Chandrakala et al., 2023).
 

Tropical root and tuber crops are important staples for food security for about a fifth of the world population. Tropical root and tuber crops like cassava, sweet potato, yams and aroids [taro and elephant foot yam] come under tropical root and tuber crops. Sweet potato, yams and colocasia are processed mainly as fresh vegetable, whereas 75% of the cassava in Africa, 75-80% in Asia and 65% in Latin America are processed either as fermented foods and feeds or as food additives such as starch, starch based sweeteners (glucose and fructose syrups), organic acids (acetic, lactic, glutamic and gluconic), mono-sodium glutamate and microbial polysaccharides (xanthan, pullulan, scleroglucan, etc).

In India, only two species viz. Capsicum annuum and Capsicum frutescens are known and most of the cultivated varieties belong to the species Capsicum annum. Insect pests and diseases are among the major constraints to enhancing production and productivity of chilli. There are a number of diseases, bacterial and viral infections that can attack chilli plants. They can sometimes be difficult to identify as they can have similar symptoms. The limited availability of commercial cultivars, resistant to pests and diseases especially in hilly areas affects its productivity. This makes more important for the farmers to rely on proper management practices to control pests and diseases.

This chapter attempts to brief the effect of insect pest and diseases on production of chilli. It also describes the proper management techniques of insect pests and diseases in chilli, highlighting the economics of their management. The chapter covers the description of insect pests of chilli like Aphid, Red Spider Mite, Slugs and Snails, Caterpillars, Capsid Bugs and Thrips and diseases like Bacterial Wilt, Anthracnose, Cercospora Leaf Spot, Damping off and Leaf Curl.

Introduction

India is a major producer, exporter and consumer of chilli. Chilli (Capsicum annuum) belongs to the genus Capsicum under Solanaceae family. It is also called as hot pepper, cayenne pepper, sweet pepper etc. Chilli besides imparting pungency and red colour to the dishes is a rich source of vitamin A, C and E and assists in digestion. Recently, Russian scientists have identified Vitamin P in green chilli which is considered to be important as it protects from secondary irradiation injury. The pungency in chilli is due to an alkaloid capsaicin which has high medicinal value. Capsaicin has many medicinal properties, especially as an anti-cancerous agent and instant pain reliever. It also prevents heart diseases by dilating blood vessels. The Chilli plant is a white flowered, dark green or purple leaved plant that grows upto 1.5 m in height. The major chilli exporting countries with their percentage share in world total exports are India (25 %), China (24 %), Spain (17 %), Mexico (8 %), Pakistan (7.2 %), Morocco (7 %) and Turkey (4.5 %).

Introduction
Domestication is the process of adapting wild plant species for human cultivation and consumption and it has played a pivotal role in shaping modern agriculture. Since the dawn of civilization, humans have selectively bred plants to enhance desirable traits, such as increased yield, improved taste, and resistance to pests and environmental stresses. Through domestication, early agriculturalists inadvertently altered the genetic makeup of wild progenitors, favouring traits that aligned with their needs and preferences. This process involved selecting and propagating plants with desired characteristics over successive generations gradually transforming once-unruly wild species into more docile, productive and palatable varieties. The domestication of crop plants was a gradual and ongoing process, often spanning thousands of years. It required keen observation experimentation, and an inherent understanding of plant biology and genetics even before these concepts were formally understood. This patient and persistent effort by our ancestors paved the way for the development of diverse and nutritious food sources, enabling the establishment of sedentary communities and the rise of complex civilizations. While modern breeding techniques have advanced significantly, the fundamental principles of domestication remain a cornerstone of crop improvement efforts. By understanding the historical significance and underlying mechanisms of domestication, we can better appreciate the invaluable contributions of our ancestors and continue to build upon their legacy, ensuring a sustainable and diverse food supply for generations to come.
The current state of food systems is being challenged due to the heavy reliance on a limited number of resource-intensive staple crops. The emphasis on maximizing yield and the consequent reduction in diversity over the course of domestication history has led to the development of contemporary crops and agricultural practices that are environmentally unsustainable, susceptible to the impacts of climate change, lacking in essential nutrients, and contributing to social inequalities. For many years, researchers have advocated for diversification as a viable solution to tackle the issues surrounding global food security. In this context, we present a vision for a new phase of crop domestication, which aims to expand the range of crop diversity. This approach involves active engagement and benefits for three key components of domestication: a) the cultivated crops themselves, b) the surrounding ecosystems, and c) the human populations depending on these crops. We delve into the potential of current tools and technologies to initiate a revival of diversity within existing crops, enhance the value of underutilized crop varieties, and introduce new crops into cultivation. This multipronged strategy aims to reinforce genetic diversity, promote resilient agroecosystems, and establish a more varied and robust food system. The successful execution of this renewed phase of domestication hinges on a bold commitment from researchers, funders, and policymakers to invest in both fundamental and practical research efforts. As we navigate the challenges of the anthropocene epoch, characterized by significant human impact on the environment, the process of domestication offers a pathway to construct more diverse and adaptable food systems that can better serve humanity’s needs.