eChapters

1. Introduction

Plant-derived substances have recently become of great interest owing to their versatile applications. Medicinal plants are the richest bio-resource of drugs of traditional systems of medicine, modern medicines, nutraceuticals, food supplements, folk medicines, pharmaceutical intermediates and  chemical entities for synthetic drugs Medicinal value lies in certain chemical substances that have its physiological action on the human body. Many indigenous medicinal plants are used as spices and food plants. The general techniques of medicinal plant extraction include maceration, infusion, percolation, digestion, decoction, hot continuous extraction (Soxhlet), aqueous-alcoholic extraction by fermentation,  counter-current extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, ultrasound extraction (sonication), supercritical fluid extraction, and phytonic extraction (with hydrofluorocarbon solvents). For aromatic plants, hydrodistillation techniques (water distillation, steam distillation, water and steam distillation), hydrolytic  maceration followed by distillation, expression and enfleurage (cold fat extraction) may be employed.

1. Introduction

Inflammation have been linked with pathogenesis of many diseases like Cancer, Atheriosclerosis, Neurodegenerative diseases, Diabetes Mellitus, Obesity, Arthritis, Cardiovascular diseases, Parkinson’s disease and other deadly diseases (Lee and Weinblatt, 2001). Inflammation can result to genetic defects and immunoregulation and mechanism defects which lead to tissue damage (Jones, 2006). Anti-inflammatory drug was serendipity discovered without thorough investigation and even not effective in term of controlling inflammation and now record several side effect just like other synthetic drugs, thus, safe biological sources are now been considered. Biological sources for active compounds that have medical importance are increase in recent time (Kaboli, 2001). Also, due to the residual side effects of synthetic compounds that form bulk of the materials used for the production of pharmaceutical products. Aspirin can cause stomach bleeding, acetaminophen can cause liver damage Cox-2 inhbitor Vioxx and Celebrex can cause heart problem and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID’s) was reported to contribute to numerous death (Clegg et al., 2006; Wolf et al., 1999; Sing, 1998).

1. Introduction

Pyrus malus Linn. commonly called as ‘apple’ in English and ‘seb’ in Hindi locally, is a well known tree belonging to family Rosaceae. It is indigenous to Europe and West Asia and grow wild in N.W. Himalayas and also cultivated. The leaves and young aerial parts are useful medicinally1. Leaves contain phloretin which is a natural antibiotic. Crushed leaves are used as temporary treatment for wounds. In Homoeopathy, its use is mentioned for labyrinthine vertigo by Dr. Cooper, in Boericke3.  The plant is a tree growing up to 20 to 40 feet, with spreading branches. The leaves are ovate or oblong ovate, serrate, 2-3’’ long; Petioles ½ to 1’’ in length. The flowers are large, fragrant, pale rose in colour and borne in sub umbellate corymbs. Fruit is a pome and edible.

Chemically the plant is  reported to contain patulin, campesterol, stigmasterol, b- sitosterol, nicotinic acid, phloretin 2- O-glucoside, phlorizin, Gibberellin A 62, melibiose, ostreasterol, 1,28-octacosanediol, pomonic acid and 1,24-tetracosanediol.

1. Introduction

Several herbs have been used traditionally to prevent and treat human and animal diseases. Recently, scientific evaluation of plants and preparations of plant origin medications have received more attention. Cassia occidentalis had been reported to be used as antidote of poison, blood purifier, expectorant, anti inflammatory agent and a remedy for the treatment of liver diseases (Ghani, 1920, Kabiruddin, 1951). C occidentalis was tested for antifeedant and insecticidal properties. It was studied successfully for its anti-parasitic (Tona et al., 1999), hepatoprotective activity (Jafri et al., 1999). Stimulation of the immune system is highly desirable for the treatment of immunodeficiency and infectious diseases. The  anti-inflammatory and hepato protective effects of C occidentalis may relate to an influence of plant compounds on immunocompetent cells. The present study was undertaken to find out the effect of methanolic extract of C occidentalis leaves on the humoral immune response in rabbits.

1. INTRODUCTION

The medicinal plants have been used by humans from the pre-historical times. Traditional medicine based on herbal remedies has always played a key role in the health systems of many countries. In India, the native people are exploiting a variety of herbals for effective curing of various ailments. Medicinal plants are widely used by all sections of the population and country is richly endowed with a wide variety of plants of medicinal value, which represents the great national resource (Alok, 1991).

It is estimated that at least 70 percent of population relay on herbal medicines for primary health care in our country (Holley and Williams, 1996). In India, different classical medicinal systems such as Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani are being practiced in the country and in addition to innumerable local folk medicinal traditions exist. More than 8000 species of wild plants are known to be used in India for the treatment of various health problems (Ved et al., 2000). This rich medicinal wealth is mainly distributed in two biodiversity hotspots that are Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats. Numerous studies have pointed out that many drugs that are used in commerce have come from folk-use and use of plants by indigenous cultures (Anon, 1994). Medicinal plants form a heterogeneous group in growth, habit, distribution, reproduction, phenology and their ecological requirements.

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants are nature’s priceless gift to human. They have been used all over the world for the treatment and prevention of various ailments particularly in developing countries where infectious diseases are endemic and modern health facilities and services are inadequate. Medicinal principles are present in different parts of the plants such as root, stem, bark, heartwood, leaf, flower, fruit or plant exudates (Thenmozhi et al., 2010). Phytochemicals from medicinal plants serve as lead compounds in drug discovery and design (Sofowora, 2006).

Free radicals are chemical species which contain one or more unpaired electrons, due to which they are highly metastable and cause damage to other molecules by extracting electrons from them in order to attain stability (Chakraborthy and Ghorpade, 2010). Hyper-physiological burden of free radicals causes imbalance in homeostatic phenomena between oxidants and antioxidants in the body. This imbalance leads to oxidative stress that is being suggested as the root cause of aging and various diseases like diabetes, cancer, and liver damage (in severe conditions like cirrhosis and hepatitis) (Wagh et al., 2010).

1.introduction

The total sum of foods or mixture of foods which an individual consumes each day is referred to as his diet (Okey, 1992). Vegetables that are used as food has nourishing substances called nutrients namely carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins. The nutritive value of different vegetables varies sufficiently and the usage of variety of vegetables ensures all the necessary nutrients required in the diet and its lack in daily menu may result in various disease and deficiencies (Saxena, 1970).  They contain a great variety of all other phytochemicals, some of which claimed to have antioxidant, antimicrobial and also anti-carcinogenic properties (Grudha et al., 1996). But when soaking is done in water either plain or salted with sodium chloride, water soluble nutrients may be leached into the water (Srilakshmi, 1999). An attempt was made in the present study to find out the effect of soaking of some selected vegetables in water for one hour after cutting them into pieces and its nutrient loss.

1. Introduction

Buckwheat is one of the most important life supporting nutritious crops, which has come as a secondary crop in many countries and has now attained its position in the agriculture of many countries where cereals form the stable food for the people. Though the crop is not a cereal, the seeds themselves can bring the name ‘pseudocereal’ due to their similar usage as cereal grains. There are many species of buckwheat in the world, of which mainly nine species have agricultural value (Krkoskova and Mrazova, 2005). Generally, the genus Fagopyrum in the family Polygonaceae includes two buckwheat species used for food around the world: common buckwheat (F. esculentum Moench), which is almost grown on all continents, and tartary buckwheat (F. tataricum (L.) Gaertn), which originated in eastern Tibet or northwestern Yunnan in China and is grown only in Asia, Europe, and North America (Bonafaccia et al., 2003; Tsuji and Ohnishi, 2001).

Buckwheat is grown throughout a large area as a crop that fits the farming system on marginal and fairly unproductive land. It is used as a subsistence crop in many of the more mountainous areas where it is often grown with barley at the higher altitudes. Tartary buckwheat, because of its frost tolerance, is generally grown at the higher altitudes whereas common buckwheat is grown at the lower altitudes. In many areas the trend is for replacement of common buckwheat, which has lower yielding ability and lacks frost tolerance, with finger millet or other crops.

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants are the most important source of life saving drugs for the majority of the World’s population. Plants have been an important source of medicine for thousands of years. Diabetes is one of the major degenerative diseases in the world today. It is a major risk factor for the development of cardiovascular disease. About 70 - 80% of deaths in diabetic patients are due to vascular disease. Diabetes mellitus is also associated with hyperlipidaemia with profound alteration in the concentration and composition of lipid (Odetola et al., 2006). Changes in the concentration of lipid with diabetes contribute to the development of vascular disease. Excessive levels of blood cholesterol accelerate atherogenesis and lowering high blood cholesterol reduces the incidence of CHD Grundy (1986). One of the risk factors for coronary heart disease is elevated Total Cholesterol (TC), Low Density Lipoprotein-Cholesterol (LDL-C) and Lower High Density Lipoprotein-Cholesterol (HDL-C) (Hu et al., 2001; Schaefer, 2002; Moreno and Mitjavalia, 2003; Jain et al., 2007). In particular, hyperglycemia, the primary clinical manifestation of diabetes, is thought to contribute to diabetic complications by altering vascular cellular metabolism, vascular matrix molecules and circulating lipoproteins (Inoguchi et al., 1994).

1. Introduction

Food poisoning is a major concern for both the food industry and consumers inspite of different preservation practices some species of pathogenic bacteria causes food spoilage leading to outbreak of illness. Spices and herbs have been added to food since ancient times, not only as flavouring agents, but also as food medicine and as food preservative (Nakatani, 1994). Additives need for food preservation may be harmful to human health and has led to use of natural products especially plant extracts, their essential in food preservation.

More than 90 percent of the cases of food poisoning each year are caused by Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, Vibrio cholerea, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Clostridium perfringens, Campylobacter, Listeria monocytogenes, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Bacillus cereus and Entero-pathogenic Escherichia coli. These bacteria are commonly found on many raw foods and cause severe disorder in humans. Spice posses anti adhesive properties that prevent the microbe to the host tissue, thus preventing the primary infection. It also possesses a rich array of phytochemical and a rich source of antioxidant. Some studies claim that the phenolic compounds present in spices and herbs might also play a major role in their antimicrobial effects.

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants continue to be an important therapeutic aid for alleviating the ailments of humankind. The search for eternal health and longevity for remedies to relive pain and discomfort drove early man to explore his immediate natural surroundings to the use of many plants, animal products and minerals etc for the development of a variety of therapeutic agents. Today, there is a renewed interest in traditional medicine and an increasing demand for more drugs from plants sources. This revival of interest in plant derived drugs is mainly due to the current widespread belief that “green medicine” is safe and more dependable than the costly synthetic drugs, many of which have adverse side effects.

Vitex negundo or Five-Leaved Chaste Tree is commonly known as Nirgundi in India. It is a large aromatic shrub belonging to the Verbenaceae family of plants. It is distributed throughout the greater part of India up to an altitude of 1500 m in the outer Himalayas. It is a gregarious shrub that is found abundant along the banks or rivers, in moist situations, open waste lands and near the deciduous forests. It is widely planted as a hedge plant along the roads and between the roads.

1. Introduction

India has a rich tradition of plant-based knowledge on healthcare. It is reported that traditional healers use 2500 plant species and 100 species of plants serve as regular sources of medicine (Pei, 2001). Traditional medical knowledge of medicinal plants and their use by indigenous cultures are not only useful for conservation of cultural traditions and biodiversity but also for community healthcare and drug development in the present and future. Medicinal plants have curative properties due to the presence of various complex chemical substances of different composition which are formed as secondary plant metabolites in various parts of the plants such as roots, shrubs, leaves, flowers etc. (Gurib-Fakim, 2006).

A large number of plants are equally used by tribals and folklore traditions in India for treatment of cuts, wounds and burns (Biswas and Mukherjee, 2003). A wound is a type of injury in which skin is torn, cut or punctured, that disturbance in the normal skin anatomy and function. Wound healing consists of orderly progression of series of events that establish the integrity of damaged tissue and thereby the affected parts repair itself after injury. The wound healing herbs encourage blood clotting and induce the healing of wounds (Sudhakar et al., 2003; Nagori and Solanki, 2011; Binu Thomas et al., 2012).

1. Introduction
 
Keratinophilic fungi are the natural colonizers of keratinic substances like hair, nail, fur, feathers, hooves, claws, beaks, scales etc. Cattle sheds, garbage, animal burrows, sewage, birds nest, feather and hair dumping sites, poultry farms, public places like parks, schools, market place etc., are the common habitats of these fungi (Ali-Shtayeh and Rana, 2000). They utilize keratin as the sole source of carbon and nitrogen and produce an extracellular enzyme keratinase.

Keratinophilic fungi have been receiving considerable attention in recent days as these include dermatophytes which are potential pathogens causing various diseases in skin and scalp (Weitzman and Summerbell, 1995). Human exposure to these fungi is a matter of health risk. Several non-pathogenic fungi are now being reported as opportunistic pathogen and their occurrence in various environments, where they are naturally occurring is not directly investigated. Although several antifungal drugs are available in the market, its use is being limited due to a number of reasons such as low potency, poor solubility, development of resistant strains and drug toxicity. Hence there is an essential need to evaluate plant extracts scientifically for their medicinal properties to discover more safer and effective antifungal agents.

1. Introduction

Mounting pressure of teeming population and shrinking land resources have necessitated the production of increasingly more food per unit area. Insect pests, diseases and weeds are important biotic constraints inflicting 20-25% loss in agriculture production. Synthetic pesticides have of course, played a very significant role in restricting many pest problems. However, their indiscriminate has been its toll by creating several problems like pesticide resistance in insects, contamination of food with toxic residues, resurgence of pests and deleterious effects on non target organisms. The number of effective pesticides available is dwindling day by day further having less choice among which to choose. These ill effects have arised interest in alternate methods of plant protection.

The extent to which various plant species are utilized for pest control depends, not only on their effectiveness against target pests, but also on socio-economic, environmental and policy considerations. Keep these in mind the present study on the efficacy of botanicals against Spodoptera litura was carried out.

1. Introduction

Phytochemicals are compounds present in fruits that are not required for normal functioning of the body, but have a beneficial effect on health or play an active role in amelioration of diseases. Phytonutrients have various health benefits like antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, cancer preventive, antidiabetic and antihypertensive. The pigments of the fruits have many therapeutic benefits including vasoprotective and anti-inflammatory properties, antiproliferative, chemo protective and anti-neoplastic properties, reversing age related deficits (Joseph et al.,1999) and useful in controlling oxidative stress during pregnancies complicated by intrauterine growth retardation (Pawlowicz et al.,2000). Cocculus hirsutus Linn. is a climber and widely distributed in tropical and subtropical climates. This plant is commonly called as kattu kodi in Tamil. It belongs to the family Menispermaceae. The fruit is a drupe which is size of small pea with red purple endocarp (Fig.1a and Fig.1b). The plant is used in treatment of gonorrhea, spermatonorrhea, Urinary troubles, diarrhea and hyperglycemia (Kirtikar and Basu, 2002). The leaves of the plant have been evaluated for anti hyperglycemic (Badole et al., 2006); antibacterial (Panda et al., 2007); diuretic and laxative (Ganapaty et al., 2002). Several isoquinoline alkaloids are present in leaves and roots; the important ones cohirsine, cohirsinine, cohirsitinine, hirsutine and jamtine (Viqaruddin et al., 1987; 1991; 1992; 1993). Since no detail scientific approach has been made to study phytochemicals of cocculus hirsutus fruit. So in the present investigation preliminary

1. Introduction

The discovery and development of antibiotics have led to dramatic improvement in the ability to treat infectious diseases with emergence of drug – resistant organisms due to irrational and overuse of antibiotics, failure to complete a course of treatment, genetic versatility of microbes and horizontal transfer of resistant genes among bacterial species had led to antibiotic resistance (Amit and Shailendra, 2006; Aibinu, 2007).The need for alternative antimicrobial agents has renewed the interest on plants as a sources of antimicrobial agents due to their use historically and the fact that a good portion of the world’s population, particularly in developing countries, rely on plants for the treatment of infectious and non-infectious diseases.
 
Syzygium aromaticum

Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) is the aromatic dried flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae. The traditional use indicates that Clove has several therapeutic properties, such as an aphrodisiac, stomach, carminative, nervous stimulant and tonic. Reports has been documented  on their aphrodisiac, antibacterial, antifungal, nematocidal, anti-toothache, anti-oxidant, analgesic, anesthetic and hypotensive properties. Although in Iranian traditional medication several formulation containing clove have been used as a nervous stimulant and cognitive enhancer. (Mohammad, et al., 2009).

1. Introduction

Antioxidants are defined as molecules which can be safely interact with free radicals and terminate the chain reaction before vital molecules are damaged (Nidhi and Gaurav, 2012). Naturally occurring antioxidants to replace synthetic antioxidants which are being restricted due to their carcinogenicity (Abdel Hameed, 2009). The antioxidant phytochemicals such as polyphenols, flavanoids and related compounds found in medicinal plants have received increasing attention for their potential role in prevention of human diseases (Upadhyay et al., 2010).
 
The genus Ophiorrhiza belongs to the family Rubiaceae and consists of about 150 species and distributed in tropical and subtropical Asia. Species of Ophiorrhiza are economically important and many of these species contain a high value anticancerous compound, a cytotoxic alkaloid camptothecin and other valuable alkaloids. Ophiorrhiza pectinata Arn. is a herbaceous plant and is distributed over peninsular India and Srilanka. A preliminary study conducted in O. pectinata also contains this important alkaloid (0.0040mg/g dry wt). Leaves and stem contain traces of hydrocyanic acid. The main objective of the present study is to evaluate the antioxidant and radical scavenging property of the chloroform methanol and water extract of whole plant of O. pectinata. 

1. Introduction

The therapeutic efficacy of many indigenous plants for various diseases has been described by traditional herbal medicine practitioners (Bharat and Parabia, 2010). Natural products are the source of synthetic and traditional herbal medicine. They are still the primary health care system in some parts of the world (Mahmud et al., 2010). In India, local empirical knowledge about medicinal properties of plants is the basis for their uses as a home remedies. It is generally accepted by many Indians and elsewhere in the world that beneficial medicinal effects can be obtained by ingesting plant products. Plants bear the basis of many traditional medicines throughout the world for thousands of years and continue to provide new remedies to mankind (Patel, 2009). The World Health Organization (WHO) also encourages, recommends and promotes the use of traditional and herbal remedies in the National Health Care Program because these medicines are easily available at low cost, comparatively safe and people have faith in such remedies (Wani, 2007). Herbal medicines are promising choice over modern synthetic drugs. Due to the serious obsession with the modern medicinal system, people have started looking at the ancient healing systems like Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani (Shankar and Ved, 2003).

1. Introduction

Atalantia monophylla (L.) DC. is a small tree belonging to the family Rutaceae; resembles Citrus in general aspects and is considered a close wild relative of Citrus. The species is commonly called as wild lime, in Malayalam it is called as Kattunaragam and in Tamil Katuuelumichai. A. monophylla is used in Ayurveda, Folk and Siddha systems of medicine. It is used for the treatment of rheumatoid pain and glandular swelling (Sankaranarayan et al., 2010). The root is believed to be antispasmodic (Kiritikar and Basu, 1999), the leaves are often applied for itching and other skin complaints (Panda, 2004) and acridone alkaloids isolated from roots were reported to have anti-allergic activity (Chukaew et al., 2008). The chloroform extract of leaves has shown antiviral activity (Chansakaow et al., 1996). Besides its medicinal value A. monophylla leaves are used as flavoring agent, berries are used for making pickles, juice of berries are used for dyeing purpose and wood as timber. It is also useful as a rootstock for breeding new cultivars of Citrus Linn. (Guha Bakshi et al., 1999). This species has high medicinal value and the natural population is under threat due to habitat destruction, use of wood as firewood, collection of fruits for making pickles and harvesting of leaves, roots for medicinal purposes by the local communities. Hence there is a need for developing an appropriate conservation strategy for this species.

1. Introduction

Our Indian traditional medicine depends on herbals which always played an important role in the health problems of many countries. In India, the tribal people are using variety of herbals for effective curing of various ailments. These plants are often used by the local people of that area for treatment of various diseases. Ethnomedicinal studies have offered immense value and opportunities for the development of new drugs. Living close to nature, traditional societies have acquired unique knowledge about the use of wild flora and fauna, most of which are unknown to the people who live away from such natural ecosystem as forests and hills. The hills have been the sources of medicinal plants since the time man realized the preventive and curative properties of plants and started using them for human health care.

Tribal people throughout the world, including India, have developed their own cultures, customs, religious rites, taboos, legends and myths, folk tales, medicine, food, etc., They are the repository of accumulated experience and knowledge of the indigenous vegetation; this can be utilized in tribal development. These days greater emphasis is being laid on this traditional knowledge and on using it in the “bioprospecting” of natural products as a new source of food and medicine.