eChapters

1. Introduction

Seaweeds are the extraordinary sustainable resources in the marine ecosystem which have been used as a source of food, feed and medicine. The number of natural products isolated from marine organisms increases rapidly, and now exceeds with hundreds of new compounds being discovered every year (Chapman and Chapman. 1980, Cheennubhotla et al., 1986; Chennubhotla et al., 1987; Faulkner, 2002; Proksch and Muller, 2006). Several products of algal origin such as alginate, carrragenean and agar as phycocolliods have been used for decades in medicine and pharmacy (Fitton, 2006). Seaweeds are considered as source of bioactive compounds and produce a great variety of secondary metabolites characterized by a broad spectrum of biological activities.  Seaweeds contain various inorganic and organic substances which can benefit human health (Kuda et al., 2002). The in vitro studies on green, brown and red algae confirmed the following potential activities viz., cytostatic, antiviral, antihelminthic, antifungal and antibacterial (Lindequist and Schweder, 2001; Newman et al., 2003; Dhargalkar and Neelam, 2005; Huang et al., 2005; Gonzalez del Val et al., 2001; Espeche et al., 1984).

1. Introduction

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a collective term used for oxygen containing free radicals, depending on their reactivity and oxidizing ability. They participate in a variety of chemical reactions with biomolecule (Kunwar et al.,2011).These free radicals include superoxide anions (O2-), hydroxyl (OH-), peroxyl (ROO), peroxynitrite (ONOO) and nitric oxide (NO) radicals; produced through oxidative process within the body. They can damage both the structure and function of a cell membrane in a chain reaction leading to degenerative disease conditions such as alzheimer, ageing process, cataracts, acute liver toxicity, cardiovascular disease, arteriosclerosis, nephritis, diabetes mellitus, rheumatism, inflammation process and DNA damage that can lead to carcinogenesis (Ghosh et al., 2011).

An antioxidant is a molecule capable of inhibiting or preventing the oxidation of molecules. Antioxidants are substances that may protect cells from the damaging effects of oxygen radicals, highly reactive chemicals that play a part in atherosclerosis, some forms of cancer and reperfusion injuries. Medicinal plants are an important source of antioxidants. The secondary metabolites like phenolics and flavonoids from plants have been reported to be potent free radical scavengers. They are found in all parts of plants such as leaves, fruits, seeds, roots and bark (Chanda and Dave, 2009).

1. Introduction

Nothing in the universe is non medicinal everything has its value in its own way. Infectious diseases are an important health hazard all over the world, both in developing and developed countries. Several synthetic antibiotics are employed in the treatment of infectious and communicable diseases. A number of researchers nowadays are working seriously to find out substitutes for antibiotics as they cause side effects on the functioning of different parts of the body organs and systems. Antibiotics are also known to disturb the natural intestinal micro flora, thus depriving the benefits of these microbes to human body. Medicinal plants exhibit antimicrobial activity since they contain innumerable biologically active chemical constituents. The medicinal plant wealth, the strong and time tested traditional medicare systems like ayurveda and the human resource base are the strengths of India. Over the last forty years intensive efforts have been made to discover clinically useful antibacterial/ antifungal drugs (Sashikumar et al., 2003). Over 50% of all modern clinical drugs are of natural product origin (Ates, 2003). Higher plants as sources of medicinal compounds have continued to play a dominant role in the maintenance of human health since ancient times (Farombi, 2003).

1. Introduction

India throughout its long history has accumulated a prosperous practical acquaintance of the use of medicinal plants for the treatment of various diseases. Chemical studies on Indian medicinal plants make available a priceless material foundation for the discovery and development of new drugs of natural origin. Contrary to the synthetic drugs, antimicrobials of plant origin are not associated with many side effects and have an enormous therapeutic potential to cure many infectious diseases (Bibitha et al., 2002; Maghrani et al., 2005; Doughari, 2006). Plants are used as a medicine in different countries and are a source of many potent and powerful drugs (Kambizi and Afolayan, 2008). Extraction and characterization of several active compounds from these green factories have given birth to some high activity profile drugs (Mandel et al., 2007). Phyllanthus is a medicinally important genus belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. A number of plants of this family are observed to be beneficial for the treatment of liver ailments. Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. is a large climbing shrub growing from 8-10 feet in height. It is used in the traditional medicinal system of our country for treatment of a variety of ailments including small pox, syphilis, asthma, diarrhoea, and bleeding from gums (Kirtikar and Basu, 2003;

1. Introduction

Malaria remains one of the most serious tropical diseases and kills an estimated one to two million people each year worldwide (Snow et al., 2005). Spread of drug resistance has played an important role in the occurrence and severity of epidemic diseases in the world (Majori, 2004). As a consequence of resistance to drugs such as quinine, chloroquine, primaquine and mefloquine, the vehemence of malaria has increased in many endemic regions of the world (Schlitzer, 2007; Basco et al., 1994). One of the biggest challenges to malaria control is the emergence and spread of drug resistant P. falciparum strains. Although human malaria transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes has four Plasmodium species as its aetiological agents P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovaleand P. malariae, the most widespread and severe disease is caused by P. falciparum, which transiently infects the liver before invading red blood cells of the mammalian host. Clinical manifestations occur at the erythrocytic stage and can include fever, chills, prostration and anaemia, as well as delirium, metabolic acidosis, cerebral malaria and multi-organ system failure, which may be followed by coma and death (Fidock et al., 2004; Deprez-Poulain et al., 2005, De Sa et al., 2009).The success of the natural product-based antimalarials such as quinine and artemisinin has showed the importance of plants as potential source of antimalarial agents. Consequently, numerous efforts to identify antiplasmodial activities from plants traditionally used as remedies for fever and malaria (Chen et al., 1997; Havsteen, 2002;

1. Introduction 

Medicinal plants are a basis of huge economic value all over the world. The use of plants and plant products as remedies could be sketched as far back as the beginning of human civilization. The most primitive medicinal use of plants in Hindu culture is mentioned in “Rigveda”, which is believed to have been written between 4500 - 1600 B.C. and is theoretical to be the oldest arsenal of human knowledge (Dhale and Mogle, 2011). Ayurveda is the base of curative science of Hindu culture, in its eight dissection deals with specific properties of drugs and different aspects of science of life and the art of healing (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 2002). Nature has presented on us an affluent botanical wealth and a large number of varied types of plants nurture in different parts of the country. Herbal medicine is still the basis of about 75 - 80% of the whole population. The major part of traditional therapy occupies the use of plant extract and their active components (Akerele, 1993). Secondary metabolites are green medicines present in plants and plant parts that act as defense system against disease inducing organisms or more accurately to protect against disease due to the physiological and biochemical mechanism failure (Alarcon-Aguilar et al., 2002).

1. Introduction

Plants are reliable sources for the treatment of diseases in different parts of the world (Eisenberb et al., 1993; Cowan, 1999; Hostettmann et al., 2000) and they have been unique sources of medicines and constituted the most common use of biodiversity (Hamilton, 2004; Hiremath and Taranath, 2010). Their use contributes significantly to primary healthcare delivery (Holetz et al., 2002) as they are regarded as invaluable sources of pharmaceutical products (Olalde, 2005).

Traditional medicine, with medicinal plants as their most important component, are sold in market places or prescribed by traditional healers in their homes (Von Maydell, 1996). As a result of this strong dependence on plants as medicines, many ethnopharmacological studies have been conducted to determine their safety, efficiency and discovery of new active principles from them. Only, 1,100 plants have so far been thoroughly examined for their medicinal practices in the world (Dobson, 1995).

Herbal medicine have been in use since time immemorial and are still the mainstay mainly in the developing countries because of their better cultural acceptability, better compatibility with the human body and lesser side effects (Kamraj, 2000).

1. Introduction

Gloriosa superba L. (Liliaceae) is a striking tuberous climbing plant with brilliant wavy-edged yellow and red petaled flowers. Glory lilies are grown commercially for a chemical compound, colchicine. The annual foreign exchange through the export of glory lily seeds is estimated to be Rs.100 crores (Alice and Sundravadana, 2012). It is used as anthemirtic, alexiteric and useful in ulcers, piles, abdominal pains and itching. It has abortifacient, anti-pyretic, anti-inflammatory and anti-leprotic properties (Gupta et al., 2005). Leaf blight disease was first noticed in  G.. Superba in West Bengal, India in 2004. The leaf blight disease was observed during June to September. Early symptoms appeared as small, circular to oval, light brownish spots, 2-6 per leaf, scattered at the tip, margin and midrib of the leaves. Subsequently the spots enlarged and usually developed into concentric rings. At an advanced stage, the spots became dark brown to blackish in colour, gradually coalesced and became irregular in shape, then the affected leaf blighted completely. The causal organism was found to be a fungus namely Alternaria alternata (Fr.) Keissler. The pathogen is greatly influenced by weather with the highest disease incidence reported in wet seasons and in areas with relatively high rainfall (Meena et al., 2010). The growth of A. alternata was maximum in pH range of 6-6.5 and temperature range of 25-30°C (Hubballi et al., 2010).

1. Introduction

Medicinal plants are rich source of novel drugs that forms the ingredients in traditional systems of medicine, modern medicines, nutraceuticals, food supplements, folk medicines, pharmaceutical intermediates, bioactive principles and lead compounds in synthetic drugs (Ncube, 2008).  In recent years, antibiotic resistance has become a global concern. This drives the need to screen medicinal plants for novel bioactive compounds as they are biodegradable, safe and have fewer side effects (Prusti et al., 2008). Higher plants, as a source for new potential drugs is still largely unexplored and screening of active agents helps to design the lead molecule later in drug development.

Aegle marmelos(L.) Corr., belongs to the family Rutaceae, and is popularly known as Vilvam tree (Tamil) (Gamble, 1935; Mathew, 1983). It is an indigenous tree found in Iran, India, Myanmar, Pakistan, Bangladesh and most of Southeast Asian countries (Singh, 2009).  A. marmelos has been used from time immemorial in traditional systems of medicine for relieving diarrhoea, dysentery, stomachic, digestive, astringent, peptic ulcer and respiratory infection (Nadkarni, 2000). The fruit, leaves, bark and root are edible and possess medicinal values. The unripe dried fruit used to be astringent, digestive and stomachic, the ripe fruit is aromatic, cooling and is used as laxative.

During the last 21 years, the scientists and scholars of the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) have been working on the design and implementation of projects which could have a large extrapolation domain in respect of imparting a pro-nature, pro-poor, pro-women and pro-sustainable livelihood orientation to technology development and dissemination. I would like to write about a few of the MSSRF initiatives, which have now become state, national and global programmes.

Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana: Strengthening the role of women in agriculture

MSSRF initiated the Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra in 2007 for empowering women farmers, including the widows of farmers who had committed suicide, in areas related to enhancing the productivity, profitability and sustainability of small-scale rain-fed farming. The empowerment measures incorporated access to technology, credit, inputs and market.

Mamata Banerjee has raised the important issue of land use and acquisition for public, political, professional and media debate. With increasing population pressure on land, this issue deserves careful consideration and rational discussion. The Singur dilemma in a wider sense relates to both land use policy and norms of compensation for land acquired by government for non-farm purposes. Land conflicts are also spreading in other parts of our country, as far example where land is needed for establishing Special Economic Zones (SEZs). The Maharashtra Government has wisely adopted the policy of holding a referendum to seek the views of farmers and others who will be dispossessed of their land for meeting the needs of SEZs. Pro-active consultations will help to avoid difficulties later. Water conflicts are also affecting important irrigation projects. Land conflicts are likely to do the same and may affect the balanced growth of the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors of the economy. How can we deal with this situation in a manner which leads to a win-win outcome for all the stakeholders ?

Mahatma Gandhi mentioned to those who wanted to serve rural India that their most useful contribution would be in linking brain with brawn.  Only such a combination of intellect and labour can lead to sustainable advances in the productivity and profitability of agricultural holdings.  West Bengal’s Bidhan Chandra Krishi Vishwavidyalaya (BCKV), almost four decades old, is a fitting example of such work.  It has helped the development of two more universities in the State, namely, West Bengal University of Animal & Fishery Sciences and the Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya.  It is important that these three universities function like a consortium of educational institutions mandated to help in achieving agricultural advance, agrarian prosperity and rural transformation in the State.

Livestock and livelihoods are intimately related in our country.  The ownership of livestock is more egalitarian than that of land.  Similarly, West Bengal is full of fish ponds.  It is important that cultivation of crops like rice is done by adopting integrated pest management procedures, so that the water in which fish is cultivated does not get polluted with pesticides.

Livestock and livelihoods are intimately linked in our country.  Mixed farming involving crop-livestock as well as sometimes fish integration has been both a way of life and a means to sustainable livelihoods.  Also, the ownership of the livestock is more egalitarian than that of land.  That is why in our ancient culture, livestock has been given a pride of place in the area of spiritual veneration and natural resources conservation.  Maharashtra is rich in its livestock resources and has also a long coastline with a wide range of living aquatic resources.

The crop-livestock integrated farming system provides an opportunity for promoting organic farming and restoration of soil health, and thereby of an ever-green revolution leading to an enhancement of productivity in perpetuity without associated ecological harm.  It also strengthens household nutrition security.  The country as a whole has over 500 million farm animals.  However, grazing land has been reduced to less than 5 per cent of the arable land area.  Village common property resources, which used to provide fodder and shelter to farm animals, have been overexploited.  Consequently, our farm animal productivity is very low.

India’s Northeast region — one of natural beauty and cultural richness — is both a mega-biodiversity area as well as a “hot-spot” for genetic erosion. The rural population is around 82 per cent and depends largely on agriculture and allied sectors for work and income security. The forests harbour 8000 out of the 15,000 species of flowering plants occurring in the country. Of about 1300 species of orchids reported from India, the Northeast has the highest concentration with about 700 species. The species richness is highest in Arunachal Pradesh where over 5000 flowering plants occur and the lowest in Tripura with 1600 species. Bamboo is the lifeline of the Northeast and 63 out of 136 species found in India occur in this region. Sadly, however, 25 species of bamboo fall under the rare and endangered category. The region is also home to the eri and muga silkworms. The yak and the mithun are unique animals which are threatened by the spread of non-edible invasive species like Lantana, Eupatorium and Mekenia. The cultural diversity of this region is well known, with 225 tribes out of 450 in the country living here. 

Managing the National Food Security System

Rajiv Gandhi understood the wisdom of Gandhiji’s doctrine that Gram Swaraj is the pathway to Purna Swaraj and launched the Panchayati Raj movement. Schedule 11 of Constitution Amendment 73 entrusts panchayats with the responsibility of managing natural resources and fostering sustainable agriculture. Representative democracy through elected members, one third of whom are women, and participatory democracy through Gram Sabhas, are powerful tools for ensuring a pro-nature, pro-poor, pro-women, and pro-livelihood orientation to all rural and agricultural development programmes.
 
The National Commission on Farmers has emphasised the need for community-managed food and water security systems promoted with the help and oversight of Gram Sabhas.  The Gram Sabha can serve as a Pani Panchayat to ensure that rainwater is not only harvested, but is used in a sustainable and equitable manner.

There are reports in financial newspapers that the ongoing (2010) drought affecting nearly 200 districts in the country may not have much effect on GDP, since the farmers in the drought-affected areas contribute hardly 3 per cent to GDP.  It is sad that such a measure of the impact of drought on the lives and livelihoods of millions of rural families is even considered. It is this mindset, typical of the growing insensitivity to human suffering in our country, that is responsible for India being the home for the largest number of undernourished and malnourished children, women and men in the world.  No wonder we are finding it difficult to achieve the first among the UN Millennium Development Goals, namely, reducing hunger and poverty by half by 2015.  Unless we realise that agriculture in India is not just a food- producing machine, but is the backbone of the livelihood of over 60 per cent of our population, rural deprivation and suffering will not only continue to persist, but will get worse, leading to severe social unrest.

How can we develop a sustainable water security system in an era of climate change and global warming ?  In my view, every country should develop a sustainable water security system with the following four major components.

Supply augmentation

The major sources of irrigation water are from rainfall, rivers, tanks, reservoirs and other surface water resources, groundwater, industrial and domestic effluents, and seawater.  Seawater comprises almost 97 per cent of the global water resource and is an important social asset.  With the melting of Arctic and Antarctic ice, sea level will go up with disastrous consequences. The tsunami of December 2004 gave a glimpse of what could happen in the future.  To augment supplies, we must harvest rainwater and store it carefully, both above and below ground.  Also, we should ensure that all waste water which emerges from industry and domestic use is purified and recycled.  Rainwater harvesting should become a way of life, so that it becomes everybody’s business.

A climate-resilient agriculture, which we need urgently, will have to be based on a two-pronged strategy: maximising farm productivity and production during a normal monsoon period, and minimising the adverse impact of unfavourable weather as witnessed during 2009.  Unfortunately, we are yet to develop an anticipatory research and extension programme to minimise damage during unfavourable monsoon periods.  For example, the deficiency in rainfall during the southwest monsoon of 2009 was 23 per cent.  The growth in agriculture and allied sector GDP was minus 0.2.  The highest growth rate in agriculture GDP of 5.2 per cent was observed during 2005-06 when the growth in total GDP was 9.5 per cent.  Had we had a scientific monsoon management strategy, we could have minimised the loss in 2009-10.  Similarly, if we have a strategy for maximising the benefits of a good monsoon, we can hope to achieve at least 5 per cent growth rate during 2010-11 in agriculture and allied sectors.  In parts of China like the Yunnan province, which has experienced 60 per cent less rainfall than normal, there is a move to grow different crops together in the same field, thereby distributing the risk arising from monoculture. It is time to develop a pro-active monsoon management strategy.

The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities is the core of the many climate agreements arrived at so far, including the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Bali Plan of Action (2007).  The differentiated responsibilities aim to meet the special needs of developing countries for accelerated and equitable economic development.  Both at Copenhagen and Cancun, the industrialised countries proposed limiting the rise in mean temperature to 2ºC above normal.  Even this seems to be unattainable in the context of the present rate of emission of greenhouse gases (GHG).  Hence, the principle of common but differentiated impact of the 2º change in mean temperature is essential for prioritising climate victims. For example, small islands like Tuvalu in the Pacific Ocean, Maldives, Lakshadweep, and Andaman and Nicobar, as well as the Sunderbans in West Bengal, Kuttanad in Kerala and many other coastal locations will all face the prospect of submergence.  Floods will become more serious and frequent in the Indo-Gangetic plains.  Drought-induced food and water scarcity will become more acute. South Asia, sub-Saharan Africa and the small islands will be the worst victims.  In contrast, countries in the northern latitudes will benefit due to longer growing seasons and higher yields.

In 2009, the world celebrated the 200th anniversary of the life and work of Charles Darwin, a transformational scientist who brought about a revolution in our understanding of evolution.  Evolution through natural selection among living organisms leading to the survival of the fittest was a concept which was alien to Christian thought in Darwin’s time, as faith was strong in the divine creation of the living forms of our planet.  Evolution of higher forms of life, including human beings, from fish and other forms of living organisms was an accepted view in ancient Indian thought, as exemplified by the ten forms of manifestation on earth of the Hindu god Vishnu.

“Variety is the spice of life” is a common saying.  Variation is a must for selection to occur.  Today, we are confronted with the prospect of human-induced changes in climate, leading to adverse variations in temperature, precipitation, flood and sea level.  We will have to be prepared for facing the consequences of drought, flood and coastal storms more frequently.