eChapters

1.Botanical name : Haematocarpus validus (Miers) Bakh. f. ex Forman

2.Family : Menispermaceae

3.Common Name : Khoon Phal, Blood Fruit

4. Name in Indian languages

Khoon phal (Hindi), Roktogula/Lalgula (Bengali), Rosco (Chakma), Thoyphal (Tripura), Te.pattang (Garo), Theichhung-sen (Mizo), Ranguichi (Marma), Raktaphal (Tamil/Telugu/Malayalam), Sohsnam (Khasi & Pnar).

5. Description

Khoon Phal is a dicotyledonous plant species. It is an evergreen perennial creeping woody climber capable of growing under extreme conditions, from very dry environments to highly acidic soils. It grows up to 1000 m and more in height with dark green glabrous profusely branched stems. It creeps and grows on other big trees for support.

Plant breeding is described as an art and science of changing the genetic architecture of plants with a goal towards betterment of mankind. Apart from this generalized concept, plant breeding is accomplished through inter-disciplinary mode assorted from simple selection in a variable plant-population having some desirable traits to the application of biotechnology and more. Worldwide, cultivars of different crops are routinely manufactured by Multinational and National level Industries, Government Institutions, Universities, Crop specific Organizations, professional plant breeders and even by the individuals such as gardeners and farmers.

Plant breeding is basically operated by the principles of Genetics where selections are practiced from a variable population and the selected variation needs to be inherited. Three categorized broad goals of plant breeding are 1) high yield 2) uplift in quality and 3) resistance against biotic and abiotic stress.

Spice crops are known to add nutritive value and increase the palatability as well as quality of food. Therapeutic uses of spices are also well recognised. The spice industry in India and trade has shown stunning progress over the last 5 years with 120% increase in revenue which is very close to touch $ 3 billion. East Asia is the major market for spices, followed by America and the European Union and the world spice trade has almost touched $ 17 billion by 2020. So, increased production is of paramount importance across the world and the potential is increasing. On the other hand, quality improvement is one of the primary objectives of spice crop breeding apart from achieving high yield. Cultivar and species diversity are the principal components of diversity of spices (Sasikumar et al. 1999; Krishnamoorthy et al., 1997; Prasath and Venugopal, 2004). A good amount of variability is found in many important Indian spices like black pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, curry leaf, ginger, garcinia, tamarind and turmeric. A number of cultivars have been released followed by intra-germplasm evaluation and selection in spices. Contribution of recombination breeding is less in spice crops with regard to other field crops and a number of valuable varieties have been bred by clonal and seedling selection (Peter, 2008). Deployment of high yielding, water use efficient, climate resilient genotypes and technologies are also necessary.

a) Large Unpenetrated Market
According to the sample registration system (SRS) baseline survey, 2014 released by the registrar general of India, 71 percent of Indians over the age of 15 are non-vegetarian.
b) Young Growing Population and Nutritional Security
India as a one of the major young population country in the world (27.4%) according to FAO, OECD 2018 data there is a huge need to address the nutritional security of the people with higher protein diet. Thus, we have high requirement of protein to feed country’s population in up- coming years.
c) Per Capita Consumption & Income
The annual per capita consumption of broiler meat and eggs for India is far below then recommended consumption of 180 eggs and 10.8 kg poultry meat per person per annum by Indian Council of Medical Research. The increase in per capita disposable income has led to an overall increase in food consumption, particularly protein in the form of meat and eggs.
(McKisney and company Report, 2013). The study conducted by Law et al. (2019) suggested that in India the consumer preference has changed and the cereals are now substitute of animal products rather than a complementary product

Intercropping

Canopy of cashew to cover the entire area in about 8 to 10 years when grown under normal spacing of 8m x 8m in fertile soil. However, in marginal lands, it takes 10 to 12 years for the canopy to cover entire area. Cashew when grown in hilly regions there is a possibility of soil erosion and weed growth during initial years of planting (Yadukumar and Nayak, 2000). Intercropping is the only available best options to prevent such erosions and conserve soil and moisture in hilly areas and to obtain sustainable income.

Recently, establishment of large plantations and adoption of systematic package of practices and intercropping is practiced to realize additional income in the initial years of cashew cultivations. When the cashew canopy starts touching the neighbouring trees possibility of intercropping is ruled out. Mixed cropping with other tree species is not widely accepted and even not advisable (Anon., 1997), though there are a few instances of growing casuarina as mixed crop in Andhra Pradesh and Orissa states (Yadukumar and Nayak, 2000).

A typical repeat breeder cow or buffalo is an apparently normal cycling cow / buffalo with normal genitalia which has failed to settle to services or inseminations during three or more consecutive estrus periods. These animals can neither be considered as sterile nor can settle to subsequent services.  Age of the repeat breeder should not have exceeded beyond 12 years.

The causative factors for repeat breeder animals fall in two main categories as failure of fertilization and early embryonic death.

A spectrophotometer is an analytical instrument that measures the absorbance of a test sample (solution). The term “spectroscopy” comes from the word “spectrum”. “Spectroscopy” therefore implies the use of multiple wavelengths of light. Spectrophotometers have the ability to specifically measure absorbance at specific wavelengths. The most commonly used method to allow this involves a “monochromator”, a device (either a prism, or more commonly, a diffraction grating) that splits the incident light into its component wavelengths, and allows only light of the desired wavelength to reach the sample. The ability to measure absorbance at different wavelengths is very useful, because the extinction coefficient of a compound varies with wavelength. In addition, the absorbance spectrum of a compound can vary depending on the chemical composition of the compound, and depending on the nature of the solvent around the compound.

Absorbance is a useful quantity and follows the Beer-Lambert law. The extinction coefficient of a molecule at a given wavelength can be calculated using the Beer-Lambert equation from absorbance measurements for solutions of known concentration, which states that:

Abstract: Gomphrena, indigenous to India, is popular choice for borders, edging, making crafts and potpourris. Only few species are cultivated under tropical and sub-tropical regions. A little work has been done in its improvement. Research should be focused on varietal development for long photoperiod cultivation, tolerant to high temperature stress and medicinal values of the crop. Prospects of hybridization and mutation breeding need to be explored.

Scope

This method is suitable for most OPs, OCs, SPs, and herbicides residue analysis.

Apparatus required

• Homogenizer
• Centrifuge
• Nitrogen evaporator

Principle

β-Glucosidase (BG) plays a major role in the degradation of soil organic matter and plant residues. It catalyzes the hydrolysis of β-d-glucopyranosides, the final, rate-limiting step in the degradation of cellulose, the most abundant polysaccharide providing simple sugars for the soil microbial population. BG has been shown to be sensitive to changes in soil and residue management as well as an early indicator of changes in SOC before these changes are reflected in total or organic C analyses. The method is based on colorimetric determination of the p-nirtrophenol released by β-glucosidase when soil is incubated with buffered PNG solution and toluene.

The nematode feeding on plant can be divided into above ground feeders and below ground feeders.

I. Above ground feeders

a) Feeding on flower buds, leaves and bulbs

Seed gall nematode : Anguina tritici

Leaf and bud nematode : Aphelenchoides

Stem and buld nematode : Ditylenchus

1. Botanical Name : Hippophae rhamnoides ssp. Turkestanica L. (Fam.)

2. Family : Elaeagnaceae

3. Common Name : Sea buckthorn,Leh berry

4. Name in Indian languages

Amesh, Khatai (Garhwali), Tarbu (Lahaul), Dhurchuk (Hindi), Chook/ Dhurchuk (Kumoani), Tseta lulu (Ladakh), Chharma, Tir guk (Spiti).

5. Description

Sea-buckthorn is a dioecious, usually spinescent deciduous shrub or a small tree of Elaeagnacae family. It grows up to a height of 10 m and found growing in the river beds of the drier ranges of the state at an altitude of 1600-3300 m in Himalayan ranges from Ladakh to Uttarakhand. Leaves are small and linear-lanceolate. Flowers are very small, greenish or yellowish. The fruit is acidic and is made into a jelly with sugar. A syrup is also prepared from it which is used in respiratory complaints. A decoction is used for cutaneous eruptions. The fruit is a rich source of vitamin C, carotene and also contains vitamin B. The leaves and flowers are used for treating arthritis, gastrointestinal ulcers, gout, skin rashes and lowering blood pressure.

The common pear (Pyrus communis) is known as French Pear, Asian pear also called Chinese pears, Japanese pears, Oriental pears, sand pear, salad pears and apple and pear are group of pome fruits derived from Pyrus ussuriensis and Pyrus serotina. Pyrus communis is susceptible to fireblight disease, however, Pyrus pyrifolia is resistant to this disease. Pear is only temperate fruit grown on the hills to southern parts of India. Jammu and Kashmir is leading in quality pear production.

Abstract

Biological databases that are composed of a large collection of digital nucleic acid sequences, protein sequences, or other polymer sequences stored on a computer, which is made available to the research community worldwide using web servers. The vast amount of information generated in molecular biology is analyzed, curated, tabulated, and arranged in databases. There are different types of biological databases, based on their contents. Besides, the database management system, a program to manage the databases, can be of two types: distributed DBMS and relational DBMS. This chapter briefly narrates the importance and purpose of biological databases.

Artificial Intelligence (AI), Machine Learning and Data Analytics seem to be invading all the fields to bring in efficiencies in those respective fields. However, Toxicology field seems to be lagging behind in these areas although there is a huge scope to use these advanced technologies.

AI, data analytics and machine learning can be used for creating toxicology databases on chemicals, predictive modelling and AI for risk assessment, amongst other applications. One such effort was carried out for use of AI in creating a BOT, a ToxBot, for conducting risk assessments on chemicals which helped in gaining lot of efficiencies. The ToxBotwhich was created helped in conducting risk assessments and reducing time for such risk assessments from48 hours to 15 minutes. This also ensured using a uniform database, consistent output and helping toxicologists in arriving at unform conclusions. To begin with, the sponsors need to be very clear about the objective and expected outcome of the AI solution. The first step in creating these AI solutions is creation of a datasbase. While, creating AI solutions for risk assessment two aspects are important- source of Toxicology thresholds and the other one to derive exposure to population to assess safety. Creating a Toxicology data base for deriving thresholds is tedious. Toxicology studies generate huge data on multiple chemicals, drugs and botanicals. However, these data are scattered, not uniformly documented, and there is lack of efforts to compile them. Each constituent has data on each end point and these data are spread across multiple species. Hence the Toxicology data on each constituent has variables such as species, routes, doses, duration and end points. The efforts start with creating a complete Toxicological profile including all available data on each end point in each species by specific route of administration. These profiles then form the basis of a data base, which then enable to derive safety thresholds. The other database or system is to derive the exposure. This depends on the type of product, daily dose, frequency, route, concentration of chemical and the target population. These can be populated through an exposure matrix. For Al, these data need to be documented in uniform manner for subjecting it to Machine Learning and creating AI solutions. The AI experts would then be required to understand the entire process of the desired outcome and how the dataare used, at what points. This helps them in creating an algorithm. Once the algorithm and coding is created, the product is ready to be tested.

Anthurium is a famous decorative cut flower and pot plant in the Araceae (order Spathiflorae) genus because of its extended vase life and beautiful, long-lasting inflorescences. After orchids, anthurium sales are the second-highest in the world.
Anthurium Thrips : Chaetanaphothrips orchidii Moulton
Order : Thysanoptera
Family : Thripidae
Biology: Chaetanaphothrips orchidii are small, pale yellow thrips commonly found in unopened anthurium buds and flowers. These pests are also commonly found in orchids. Females reproduce parthogenetically and on an average 80-100 eggs are laid by each female (Hata and Hara, 1998). Eggs are inserted inside the flower bud or leaf sheath. Nymphs are light yellowish in colour and are similar to the adults. Pupation takes place beneath the host plant in the soil or growing media. The entire life cycle lasts approximately 28 to 32 days but can extend up to 3 months, depending on the temperature. Increased temperatures and humidity, along with new growth of host plants, seem to promote thrips feeding and reproduction, resulting in heavier infestations and greater damage during the summer months

As we draw the threads of “Droughts through the Ages” together, we are left with a profound understanding of the cyclical yet evolving nature of drought. From the earliest whispers of human history to the stark realities of our modern world, the absence of life-sustaining water has cast a long shadow, shaping civilizations, sparking innovation, and at times, triggering societal upheaval. This book has journeyed through millennia, examining the historical accounts, scientific understandings, and societal responses to these arid interludes. Yet, the true value of this historical lens lies not merely in recounting the past, but in illuminating a path towards a more resilient future. • The preceding chapters have underscored several crucial insights. We have witnessed the devastating impacts of prolonged dry spells on ancient empires, the ingenuity displayed in developing early irrigation systems, and the growing scientific understanding of the complex interplay between atmospheric conditions, land surface processes, and human activities in driving

Aphids: Aphis gossypii :Aphididae

The aphids congregate on growing points and suck the sap. Honey dew secreted by the aphids can cause sooty mould in severe infestation. Attack leads to yellowish speckling and curling of leaves.
 
Thrips: Caliothrips indicus: Thripidae

Characteristic silvery white specks with black dots which are mostly faecal pellets, develop on leaves. Consequently, the leaves dry up.

Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L. Millsp.) is crowned as poor man’s crop which provides much needed protein to farming families with least inputs. It is a versatile plant species which can grow successfully in a range of soil types, temperatures and photoperiods. Its deep root system enables it to overcome intermittent drought and other stresses. In India, the crop is grown annually on about 4.04 m ha (FAO, 2012) and the major pigeonpea growing states are Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Gujarat (Table 1). The high protein pigeonpea dal (decorticated dry splits) is widely consumed across the country in various cuisines. The annual national production of pigeonpea is about 2.56 m tones. This produce, however, is not sufficient to feed the ever growing population of the country, and hence, necessitates huge (500,000 tons) imports of this pulse. In spite of its importance in food security and sincere research efforts, its national productivity could never cross the bar of 800 kg/ha (Fig 1) since independence. Since last 50 years, ICAR has been very seriously pursuing the issue of genetic enhancement with huge investments and some out-standing pure line varieties with about 10% more grains over the best local varieties were developed.

Strobilurins are a group of chemical compounds used in agriculture as fungicides. They are part of the larger group of QoI inhibitors, which act to inhibit the respiratory chain at the level of Complex III.Some common Strobilurins are azoxystrobin, kresoxim-methyl, picoxystrobin, fluoxastrobin,oryzastrobin, dimoxystrobin, pyraclostrobin and trifloxystrobin. Strobilurins represented a major development in fungus-based fungicides. They were extracted from the fungus Strobilurus tenacellus. They have a suppressive effect on other fungi, reducing competition for nutrients; theyinhibit electron transfer inmitochondria,disrupting energy metabolism and preventing growth of the target fungi. Strobilurins are miracle fungicides ever developed with novel mode of action & mobility that qualifies the Unique New Generation Fungicides controlling Pathogen from diverse class.

The crop production is affected by the plant type, climatic condition, soil type and management factors. The production of the plant might be increased by changing plant type and increasing the grain filling period under certain climatic condition where management and soil factors are not limited. There is a direct relationship between the plant type and crop yield because the orientation and number of leaves play an important role in carbon fixation (photosynthesis). Again any variety/cultivar will contribute 21-25 per cent to the total yield of any crop in general. In recent years due to development of photoinsensitive varieties and hybrids which are more fertilizer responsive and high yielding varieties lead to increase overall production in the country.

Plant ideotypes

Refers to plant type in which morphological and physiological characteristics are ideally suited to achieve high production potential and yield reliability. The concept of ideotype was given by Donald in 1968 and he illustrated that there should be minimum competition between the crops and crop must be competent to compete with weeds. Ideotype is defined as a biological model which is expected to perform or behave in a predictable manner within a defined environment. On the basis of environment, Donald and Hamblin (1976) identified two forms of ideotypes that is isolation ideotypes and competition ideotypes. Isolation ideotypes are suitable for mono/single cropping and competition ideotypes are suitable for mixed cultivation.