eChapters

The overuse of chemical pesticides and farmers’ improper application of them have resulted in a number of issues, including residue in food, feed, and fodder; resistance developing; resurgence, secondary outbreaks; and, most importantly, pollution of the environment. This has caused a condition known as Pesticide Treadmill, which is characterized by the need to apply ever-increasing amounts of chemical pesticides. Integrated Pest/Management was developed as an environmentally sound substitute for the exclusive use of chemicals after Rachel Carson’s book “Silent Spring” in 1962 sparked widespread concern about the overuse of pesticides.
The IDM Concept
In disease management, every alternative control strategy—cultural, biological, mechanical, resistant varieties, physical, etc.—is applied in combination to keep the disease below the threshold of economic injury . In order to control the disease, pesticides are employed if it spreads and hits the economic threshold. With consideration for the agro-ecosystem, this approach to integrated disease management uses the minimum amount of pesticides possible. In reality, we don’t aim for complete control while managing diseases—rather, we let them progress below what is tolerable, such as the economic threshold. Additionally, it offers agents the chance to endure by controlling the diseases and maintaining a particular state of equilibrium. Therefore, the goal of the integrated disease management concept is to manage the disease using all available strategies while achieving positive effects on the environment, society, and economy.

Black pepper, popularly known as the “King of spices”, is the most popular spice crop in the world, and the crop originated in the Western Ghats and Malabar coast of India. India was the centre of pepper trade from time immemorial. Recently, black pepper production in the country remained stagnant at around 90000 tonnes in the last few years. Hence, India is losing its status as a leading producer and exporter of black pepper. Kerala accounts for 75 per cent of total black pepper production in the country. It has been noted that the increase in area under cultivation is not in tune with the increase in production. Low productivity is mainly due to the incidence of pests and diseases.
Black pepper is infested by 56 species of insects in India; among these, pollu beetle, (Lanka ramakrishnae Prathapan & Viraktamath), top shoot borer (Cydia hemidoxa Meyr), scale insects (Lepidosaphes piperis and Aspidiotus destructor) are considered as major pests (Devasahayam, 2000).
It is one of the most destructive pests of black pepper and the infestation is severe in plains of Malabar region (20-30 %) and low in hilly tracts (Wayanad and Idukki) and South Kerala.
Distribution: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala.
Host plants: Castor, turmeric, guava, mulberry, etc.

Introduction
The nervous system in animals is a complex group of highly specialized cells capable of collecting and transmitting information in response to external stimuli via receptors and highly specialized sensory organs. It aids in the regulation of muscle coordination, the release of hormones, neurotransmitters, and other chemical mediators, all of which facilitate numerous bodily activities.
The nervous system is divided into two systems: the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system. Within these systems, there is another autonomic nervous system (ANS), which is distinguished by higher centers of the hypothalamus, midbrain, pons, and medulla, as well as tracts and nuclei in the spinal cord. The ANS is further divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic
systems, which help maintain homeostasis and activate emergency mechanisms in response to external stimuli. The brain is normally covered by three meninges: piameter, arachnoid, and durameter. These meninges create three spaces: the subarachnoid space (between pia mater and arachnoid), the subdural space (between arachnoid and dura mater), and the epidural space (between dura mater and the ligamentum flavum in the spinal canal). The subarachnoid space includes cerebrospinal fluid, which is isolated from cerebral blood by the morphological and enzymatic activity of cells with tight junctions that regulate intercellular diffusion and solute exchange inside the cells. These cells form a barrier known as the “blood-brain barrier”.
The blood-brain barrier works as a selective permeable membrane, allowing only certain chemicals and medications to pass through while excreting essential components from the central nervous system via energy-dependent efflux pumps like p-glycoprotein. These proteins are encoded by genes such as ABCB1, and mutations in them can result in severe effects such as Ivermectin poisoning in the Colie breed of dogs. Similarly, it aids in the relative isolation of the neurological system from the immune system by establishing an immune-suppressive parenchymal milieu. However, various infections, trauma, and developmental defects can result in underdevelopment or damage to different cerebellar structures. As a result, depending on the portion implicated, it might cause changed behavioral changes in animals such as muscle incoordination, depression, and paralysis. These clinical symptoms may be excitatory.

4.1 Layer Industry
4.1.1 Global scenario
Poultry is raised by approximately 80 percent of rural households in developing countries. Food and Agriculture Organization’s statistics department show that total egg production has grown from 61.7 million tonnes in 2008 to 76.7 million tonnes in 2018. China continues to lead the way, producing 466 billion eggs in 2018, which represents 34 percent of the global market. China has been the world’s largest producer of eggs for the last 30 years. China, European Union (EU), United states of America (USA) and India produce almost 60 percent of the world’s eggs, while the next 6 largest producers take a further 16 percent of the market. This means that the top 10 egg producers account for more than three fourth of the world’s egg production. Asia is the largest eggproducing region, with more than 60 percent of global output. 

Introduction
Chromosome manipulation, the targeted alteration of chromosome quantity and combination, represents a cornerstone of genetic enhancement in aquaculture. Initially rooted in early twentieth-century studies focused on fundamental biology—particularly in amphibian models—this field has significantly expanded to enhance desirable traits through methods like polyploidy and uniparental inheritance (Arai, 2001; Benfey, 1999; Benfey, 2011; Cherfas, 1975; Devlin & Nagahama, 2002; Felip et al., 2001; Guo et al., 2009; Hulata, 2001; Komen & Thorgaard, 2007; Nagy, et al., 1979; Nagy, et al., 1978; Neyfakh, 1956; Ojima & Makino 1978). Over time, researchers worldwide have meticulously refined these techniques, transforming chromosome manipulation into a powerful tool for developing aquaculture strains with improved performance traits. By the late 20th century, aquaculture research began leveraging chromosomal modifications in finfish and aquatic invertebrates to achieve increased growth rates, disease resistance, and enhanced survival, with such techniques becoming extensively applied in commercial aquaculture operations (Pandian & Koteeswaran, 1998; Piferrer et al., 2009; Purdom, 1972). Over the past 30 years, a wide body of research has focused on optimizing treatment conditions specific to each target species, yielding robust evaluations of various aquaculture performance metrics. These metrics, including survival, growth, reproductive maturation, and disease resistance, have proven essential in assessing the effectiveness of polyploid and uniparental (gynogenetic and androgenetic) progeny (Purdom, 1976; Refstie et al., 1977; Romashov et al., 1960; Romashov & Belyaeva 1964; Stanley 1976; Stanley, 1976; T. J. Pandian, 2011; Devlin & Nagahama 2002; Guo, et al., 2009; Hulata, 2001; Komen & Thorgaard, 2007). As aquaculture has grown into the fastest-expanding sector of animal food production globally, the demand for sustainably produced, high-quality protein continues to rise. This surge in demand is driven, in part, by the decline of global fisheries due to overfishing, pollution, and habitat degradation. Consequently, the aquaculture industry faces the challenge of increasing output sustainably, necessitating the development of improved fish strains that support the resilience and efficiency of farmed stocks. To meet these demands, a range of genetic modification methods has been employed, aiming to produce fish with desirable traits such as rapid growth, superior meat quality, and enhanced resistance to disease (Xu et al., 2015). Chromosome manipulation has thus emerged as a critical tool, facilitating precise genetic interventions to enhance farmed species’ overall performance and adaptability.

Objective
To produce ethanol from lignocellulosic biomass (e.g., paddy straw)
through a series of biochemical processes pretreatment, enzymatic saccharification, and microbial fermentation and to evaluate sugar yield, ethanol concentration, and fermentation efficiency.
Introduction and Theoretical Background
Ethanol (C2H5OH), commonly known as ethyl alcohol, is one of the most important biofuels and renewable energy sources in the modern era. It is a clear, volatile, and flammable liquid that can be used both as a fuel additive (blended with gasoline to form gasohol) and as an independent energy source in modified internal combustion engines. In addition, ethanol is extensively used in the pharmaceutical, beverage, and chemical industries. Globally, more than 30 billion litres of ethanol are produced annually, primarily via fermentation of sugar-rich feedstocks such as sugarcane juice, molasses, and starch-based crops like maize and wheat. However, reliance on these food-based resources has raised sustainability and food security concerns. Therefore, attention has increasingly shifted toward lignocellulosic biomass, such as agricultural residues (paddy straw, corn stover, bagasse, etc.), which are abundant, renewable, and inexpensive.
Paddy straw, a by-product of rice cultivation, is a promising raw material for bioethanol production due to its high cellulose (30–40%) and hemicellulose (20–30%) content. However, the complex structure of lignocellulosic biomass, reinforced by lignin and silica, restricts enzyme accessibility to polysaccharides. Hence, pretreatment is essential to break down lignin and enhance enzyme digestibility before fermentation.

The advancement of agricultural sciences depends on systems that are fair, inclusive, and innovative. The rating of agricultural journals requires unique considerations due to the interdisciplinary and regionally diverse nature of agricultural research. By addressing structural inequities, prioritizing accessibility, and fostering leadership, the global agricultural research community can ensure its continued relevance in solving the most pressing challenges of our time (Fig. 17.1).
This book has explored the multifaceted issues facing agricultural sciences, offering a comprehensive roadmap to create systems that uphold the highest standards of equity, innovation, and collaboration.
17.1. Reforming Journal Ratings
A key pillar of advancing agricultural sciences lies in the reform of journal rating systems. Current systems often rely heavily on impact factors, a metric that, while useful, is not comprehensive. By moving toward a multidimensional evaluation framework, we can prioritize relevance, diversity of contributions, and societal impact alongside citation metrics. Reforms could include:
• Incorporating qualitative assessments of journals, such as their contributions to underrepresented research areas or regions.
• Promoting open-access journals that adhere to rigorous peer-review standards.

Introduction 
Tree-based biofuels, which are made from non-edible oilseeds of perennial trees, have emerged as a renewable energy source with considerable environmental and economic benefits. Unlike annual biofuel crops, tree-based biofuels have the potential for long-term yields, soil conservation benefits, and the ability to survive on marginal terrain (Dwivedi et al.,2011). Various tree species have been identified globally for their biofuel potential, with an emphasis on sustainability and low competition with food crops (Pandey et al., 2012). In India, there is a diverse range of over 100 tree species that produce seed oil suitable for biodiesel. These oil tree species can be cultivated on non-agricultural lands, ensuring that they do not compete with food and fodder production. Globally, tree-based biofuels are crucial for energy security. Palm, jatropha, pongamia, and mahua are among the feedstocks investigated by the US, Brazil, and Europe for biodiesel production. Tree-borne oilseeds (TBOs) are critical for biodiesel generation in India, which relies heavily on fossil fuel imports. India has implemented both the National Biofuel Policy (2009) and the National Agroforestry Policy (2014). The former policy aims to replace fossil fuels with biofuels, targeting a 5% replacement by 2012, 10% by 2017, and exceeding 10% beyond 2017. The latter policy focuses on integrated land use options for livelihood, environment, and energy security. Notably, important tree-borne oilseeds (TBOs) such as Jatropha, Karanj, Mahua, and Simarouba have been efficiently incorporated into agroforestry systems, yielding beneficial results and providing a significant source of non-edible oilseeds from trees. The need for alternatives to fossil fuels is particularly urgent for countries like India, which have a vibrant economy and high consumption of fossil fuels, heavily relying on imports. Biofuels, as renewable liquid fuels derived from biological sources, have proven to be promising substitutes for oil in the energy sector (Mahapatra et al.,2021). In India, the focus on biofuels is primarily on non-edible oils obtained from tree species’ seeds since oils from food crops like corn, sweet sorghum, and soybean cannot be diverted for biodiesel production (Raju et al., 2012). Tree-borne oilseeds (TBOs) are cultivated across the country in various agro-climatic conditions, including forest and non-forest areas, as well as wastelands, deserts, and hilly regions. India has a vast potential for oilseeds derived from trees, such as Mahua (Madhuca indica), Neem (Azadirachta indica),

Imagine the lifeblood of a nation’s energy grid thinning to a trickle. This is the stark reality when prolonged droughts grip regions heavily reliant on the oncemighty force of hydroelectric power. While the allure of clean, renewable energy from flowing water has positioned hydropower as a cornerstone of electricity generation globally, its dependence on a consistent and abundant water supply renders it exceptionally vulnerable to the increasingly frequent and intense droughts sweeping the planet. This chapter embarks on a critical exploration of the intricate and often strained relationship between these two forces: the essential need for water in sustaining hydroelectric power and the devastating impact of its absence during drought conditions Moving beyond a simple definition, we will delve into the multifaceted ways in which droughts cripple hydroelectric facilities, from dwindling reservoir levels that starve turbines to the cascading effects on energy security, economic stability, and ecological balance. We will traverse the globe, examining compelling case studies from drought-stricken regions, revealing the tangible consequences for communities and industries. Furthermore, this chapter will unpack the complex interplay of factors that exacerbate

31.1 Introduction
A fundamental element of quality assurance is good manufacturing practice (GMP), which ensures that goods are consistently produced and regulated according to the quality standards suitable for their intended application and as outlined by the marketing license. The primary objective of GMP is to mitigate risks in pharmaceutical manufacture, which may be categorised into two main types: erroneous labelling and cross-contamination/mix-ups. Primarily, manufacturers must guarantee that their goods are safe, effective, and of adequate quality; hence, risk assessment has become a crucial component of WHO quality assurance guidelines.
31.2 Implementation of HACCP
31.2.1 HACCP Preamble and Definitions Preamble
1. The introductory portion of this publication delineates the concepts of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system as endorsed by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. This section provides broad recommendations for system application, recognising that implementation specifics may differ according to the food operation’s unique conditions.
2. The HACCP system, grounded in scientific principles and methodical methodology, identifies specific dangers and implements control measures to assure food safety. It functions as an instrument for hazard evaluation and the implementation of control systems aimed at prevention rather than predominantly on final product testing. The HACCP system is flexible, allowing for modifications in equipment design, processing methods, or technology innovations.
3. HACCP is relevant across the whole food chain, from initial production to ultimate consumption, and its use must be guided by scientific knowledge on dangers to human health. In addition to improving food safety, the use of HACCP can provide other substantial advantages. Furthermore, the use of HACCP systems can streamline regulatory inspections and enhance international trade by increasing confidence in food safety.

Garment defects are undesirable variations in the appearance, fit, construction or functionality of a finished garment. They range from minor cosmetic imperfections to serious faults that make a product unsuitable for sale. Defects can cause customer dissatisfaction, returns, loss of loyalty and reputational damage. Manufacturers may also experience rework costs, production delays, material waste, buyer rejection and financial penalties. Problems can originate during material sourcing, cutting, sewing, finishing or packaging and frequently arise from unsuitable materials, operator mistakes, machine malfunction or inadequate controls. Preventing recurrence requires trained workers, standardized procedures, effective inspections and root-cause techniques such as the Five Whys, fishbone analysis and FMEA.

Herbal Based Formulations presents plant-derived preparations used for pest, disease, viral-vector, growth, and development management. The chapter includes neem seed kernel extract, Vitex, onion, tobacco, chilli-garlic, ginger, custard apple, eucalyptus, lantana, mint, marigold, papaya, aloe, pomegranate waste, and other botanical preparations. It organizes formulations according to their intended agricultural function and provides examples of decoctions, extracts, sprays, and fermented products. The chapter demonstrates the diversity of locally available plant resources that can be incorporated into natural farming practices. It also highlights the practical importance of botanical inputs for reducing dependence on synthetic crop-protection products while supporting sustainable farm management. effectively.

Introduction

Fruits, oldest forms of food known to man, are not only good source of nutrition to the body but also have medicinal property and treat ailments. Fruits like apple, lemon, orange and pomegranate aid in proper functioning of the heart. Nutrients in apple, date and mangoes sharpens memory, prevents exhaustion, hysteria, insomnia and mental tension. All berries are rich in iron, phosphorus and sodium which are essential minerals for blood building and nervous system strengthening. Liver ailments, indigestion and rheumatism can be cured by the use of Lemons. Watermelons are good kidney cleansers. Pineapple, pomegranates help in soothing inflammation of nose, throat, fever and other chronic or bronchial ailments. Grapefruit juice is an effective aid for common cold. Fresh and ripe fruits like grapes, apples, bananas and figs are good for all brain deficiencies. Even the kernel of walnut is a helpful remedy for weakness of the brain.

Selection of Site and Land Preparation

Cashew is a hardy plant; it thrives well on wide range of soil. While selecting the land for cashew, soils with water logging and excessive salinity of alkalinity should be avoided. Otherwise, soil depth, slope, stoniness, soil fertility and water availability seem to impose very little limitation. For establishing new plantations, land preparation should begin with the first pre-monsoon rains. The area should be cleared of bushes and other wild growth before digging pits for planting.

Planting Season

Planting of soft wood grafts is usually done at the beginning of monsoon season (June-July). Therefore, land preparation such as clearing of bushes and other wild growth, digging of pits for planting, should be done during pre monsoon season (April-May).

Agricultural sector need efficient functioning of its markets to stimulate economic growth and incomes of the large rural population dependent on agriculture. More than three-fifths of India’s population draws their livelihood from agriculture that adds just one-fifth to its GDP. There should be obvious serious concerns about efficient functioning of this sector both in terms of its output / productivity and its marketing. While output and productivity are supply side factors, markets provide an intermediate link between producers and final demand by consumers. An efficient marketing system is pertinent for optimization of the resource use, output management, improving farm incomes, growth of agro -based industry and enhancing value addition. The efficient markets are also important for the stable consumer prices, higher returns to the farmers and reducing post harvest losses. Efficiently functioning markets add to welfare of producers as well as consumers. For markets to work efficiently it is pertinent to link the farm gate with retail outlets so as to reduce losses and marketing costs. However, it requires an institutional framework and infrastructure to prepare the produce in the form demanded by the consumers.

Moringa oleifera Linn. belongs to the family Moringaceae, that consists of only one genus with about 13 species of deciduous trees (Keay, 1989). It is believed to be the native of India-Pakistan-Nepal borders, but now is becoming widely distributed and grown in several countries, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions (Satti et al., 2013). Besides some other species, M. oleifera is recently being the most widely cultivated in numerous countries in Asia, including the Arabian Peninsula, central and south America and in most African countries like Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameron, Senegal, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya and Sudan (Nasir and Ali, 1972; Ramachandran et al., 1980 and Parrotta, 2001).

Coriander aphid: Hyadaphis coriandri: Aphididae

Coriander aphids are yellow-green in color, dusted with grayish wax. They have short, dusky, slightly swollen, siphunculi (or cornicles). The Aphids form dense, damaging colonies on leaves, heads, and stems of their host plants.

In its native land, Florida, USA, the life cycle of the coriander aphid is similar to that of other host-alternating aphids. Overwintering eggs occur on other hosts.  A fundatrix (or stem mother) hatches from the egg in the spring. Her offspring are parthenogenetic, and the winged-females are spring migrants. They colonize summer host plants in the family Umbelliferae.

Favourable effect of VAM association in plants has been attributed to an increased nutrient uptake by mycorrhizal roots. The transfer of ion from the soil to the roots by mass flow or by diffusion depends on the mobility of that particular ion in the soil. Ions such as NO₃^- ,SO ₄^— and Ca⁺⁺ may move rapidly through the soil to the roots by mass flow, and uptake would be limited by the absorbing capacity of the roots. On the other hand, ions such as H₂PO₄^-, NH₄⁺, Zn⁺⁺ and Cu⁺⁺ are poorly mobile and move to the roots by diffusion, the rate limiting steps is likely to be the movement to the root surface. Under such conditions, it is expected that uptake would be increased if ions could be moved rapidly through extramatrical hyphae of the VAM fungi rather than diffusing slowly through the soil. It is now well established that VA mycorrhizae enhance the uptake of phosphate by the roots but it is likely that they can also assist in the uptake of other ions. The following account provides an information on the findings of Indian mycorrhizasts on the effects of VA mycorrhizal association on nutrient uptake in the plants and its physiological implications.

Abstract

India has now become the largest producer of fruits after China by producing 45.2 million tones of fruits from 3.78 million hectare area (NHB, 2004). India is first in the production of mango, banana, sapota and acid lime. India has also recorded highest productivity in grapes, sapota and acid lime in the world. India produces about 40 fruits commercially; however, the major share is from tropical and subtropical fruits like mango (28.17%), banana (29.43%), citrus (15.56 %), guava (3.97%) and grapes (2.76 %). Among temperate fruits apple has maximum area and production and 2. 98 % share in total production. Temperate fruits growing in India spread over some 18 states. These states are categorized into 3 major regions, namely, Northern Western Himalayan Region (NWHR), North Eastern Himalayan Region (NEHR) and other hilly areas.