eChapters

Geological evidence suggests that the age of the earth is about 4,50,00,00,000 (4.5 billion) years and life began on earth between 0.6 to 1.0 billion years after earth has formed. That is life began on earth some where 4 to 3.5 billion years ago.
The plant kingdom over the globe produce oxygen about 30,00,00,000 (3 million) kg per second which is consumed by the living beings on the earth. Air which is present in the atmosphere is a mechanical mixture of gases. The various gases, solid and liquid particles in the air that envelope the earth are bound to it by the gravitational attraction. This complex content of gases, solid and liquid particles is called atmosphere. The atmosphere extends above the surface of the earth to great heights. There is no sharp boundary between the atmosphere and the outer space. For our convenience, the height of the atmosphere is taken as 1000 km. The lowest one km which is called planetary boundary layer, contains 10 per cent of the mass of the atmosphere. All biological and human activities are confined to this planetary boundary level. The mass of the atmosphere is about 5.6 x 1018 kg (mass of earth is 6 x 1024 kg). The mass of the oceans water is about 1.4 x 1021 kg. This shows that the mass of the oceans is more than 250 times the mass of the atmosphere. The density of the dry air at the earth surface is 1.225 kg/m3 and at an altitude of 5.5 km this drops to 0.66 kg/m3 and at 30 km altitude it is about 0.013 kg/m3.

In climatology, terms “Weather” and “Climate” have different connotations. Weather refers to the state of atmosphere at any given time denoting the short- term variations of atmosphere in terms of temperature, pressure, wind, moisture, cloudiness, precipitation and visibility. Weather is highly variable. It is constantly changing, sometimes from hour to hour and at other times from day to day. The aforementioned properties of the atmosphere are subject to constant change and their state at any time determines the state of the weather. However, weather elements are not separate rather they are closely related with each other.

David I. Blumenstock, an eminent climatologist has defined the weather in more restrictive sense. According to him, weather is the behaviour of the lower atmosphere with particular emphasis on the atmospheric behaviour which affect the lands and oceans and have a marked influence on the organisms that live upon the lands, within the waters of the earth or in the lower air. For the geographer, this definition of weather is more satisfactory. Since, he is interested more in the working of the lower atmosphere which affects the life of man as well as natural environment directly. Thus, we come across a great many varieties of weather covering a wide range of conditions.

The Sun is the primary source of heat to the Earth and its atmosphere. The heat received from other celestial bodies as well as the interior of the Earth is rather too significant. The distance that separates the Earth from the Sun is about 149.0 million km. The diameter of the Sun measures roughly about 1.3824 million km. The surface temperature of the Sun is estimated between 5500^o C and 6100^o C. (or 5762^o K).

The weight of the sun is about 1.9 X 10 30kg. The radius is 6.97 X 10 8 m or the diameter of the sun is 14 X 10 5 km. The mass of the earth is 6 X 10 24 kg, the radius is 6.4 X 10 6 m. The gravitational force of the earth is 9.81m/s². Whereas the sun‘s attractive force is 274m/s². This is 25 times higher than earth’s gravitational force.

The atmospheric pressure is weight of the air which lies vertically above an unit area centered at a point. Normal pressure of air is 1.034/cm².

Pressure is defined as the force per unit area.
At the surface of the earth the atmosphere air exerts a pressure of about 10⁵ Newtons/m² or 10⁵ Pascals, which is called one bar or one atmosphere. Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647) devised a method for measuring the atmospheric pressure by mercury (Hg) barameter in 1643.

Moisture present in the atmosphere plays a significant role in weather and climate of the region. There are three major components in the atmospheric moisture.

  I. Humidity

 II. Precipitation

III. Evaporation.

Humidity: The terminology related to humidity and concerned with gaseous form of water i.e. water vapour, several expressions of the amount of water vapour in the air is used. They are as follows.

Air Constantly moves from place to place due to pressure differences which are caused by difference in temperature.

Wind has been defined as air in horizontal motion. According to Byers, “The wind is simply air in motion, usually measured only in its horizontal component”. According to Trewaitha, “Wind is simply air moving in a direction which is essentially parallel with the Earth’s surface.

There are two types of movement of wind in the atmosphere.

1. Horizontal movement

2. Vertical movement (Currents)

The primary wind circulation in Northern and Southern hemispheres is seen in figure on page 51.

Cloud has been defined as a visible aggregation of minute water droplets and / or ice particles in the air, usually above the ground level.

CLASSIFICATION OF CLOUDS

Though confusion apparently arises from the number of kinds or species, the genera seems reasonably clear out, if we are able to recognize their main characteristics.

Clouds are usually classified according to their height and appearance. For convenience, we list them in descending order. High clouds, middle clouds and low clouds are some forms do not fit in any of these categories. But fortunately their particular characteristics make them easily identifiable as vertical development clouds. We must exercise some caution in studying on height. There is some seasonal as well as latitudinal variation and there is some overlapping from time to time. However, the appearance of clouds is quite distinctive for each height category.

Hydrological cycle involves four major steps, Viz., Evaporation, Transpiration, Condensation and Precipitation. Though the cycle has neither a beginning nor an end, the concept of cycle begins with the water of oceans, since it occur nearly ¾ of the Earth’s surface. Radiation from the Sun, evaporates water as water vapour from the oceans into the atmosphere. The water vapour rises and collects to form clouds. Under certain condition, the cloud moisture condenses and falls back to the Earth as rain, snow, hail etc. Precipitation reaching the Earth surface may be intercepted by vegetation or enter into the soil, may flow as run-off or may evaporate.

Evaporation may be from the surface of the ground or from free water surface. Transpiration may be from plants.

Condensation: The physical process by which a vapour becomes a liquid or solid – opposite of evaporation.

The change of state of water from solid and liquid to the vapour and its diffusion into the atmosphere is referred as Evaporation. In the meteorology, evaporation is defined as the maximum possible loss of moisture from a wet, horizontal, flat surface exposed to weather which exist in the vicinity of plants.

FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION

1. Those affecting water supply at the evaporating surface. i.e., soil and plants including soil storage capacity, rainfall and irrigation and

2. Those affecting energy supply to the evaporating surface like solar radiation.

Cloud usually consists of very small droplets of water which cannot fall appreciably below the cloud base without evaporation. In this condition clouds are stable. Rain drops are about a million times heavier than cloud drops and rain develops only if the cloud droplets grow by some mechanism. Cloud Seeding mechanism depends on the difference in vapour pressure over ice and super cooled cloud, water evaporates of the droplets and migrate to the ice crystal, which grows and begins to fall increasing their growth rate by coalescence with other droplets and eventually melting and falling as rain drops. Presence of ice nuclei determines whether ice crystals form in a supercoold cloud or not. Ice crystals form on naturally occurring nuclei at temperatures of – 10⁰ to 30⁰ C. At warmer temperatures, either the efficient ice-forming nuclei are often deficient in the atmosphere or the cloud may occur with tops supercooled but not to an extent which activates the ice nuclei available. It should be possible to initiate precipitation by introducing ice crystals or by supplying artificial nuclei.

The march of weather factors during crop period is never smooth and regular. Agriculture, because of its dependance on climate is inevitably subjected to unpredictable long and short term fluctuation characteristic of atmosphere conditions. Climate introduces an element of risk in farming which makes it particularly hazardous occupation.

A Weather hazard in this context can be defined as any type of extreme weather condition that can damage the crops and animals leading to abnormal decrease in production and income. The extent to which these hazards create risk depends on the time of occurrence, intensity and duration of the hazard besides the age, stage of development and inherent resistance of the crop or livestock involved. Major abnormalities affecting the crop production are:

El Nino means ‘The Little One’ or ‘Christ Child’ in Spanish. It was originally recognized by fisherman of the coast of South America as the appearance of usually warm water in the Pacific Ocean, occurring near the beginning of the year i.e. around Christmas. That is why the name is used. El Nino, the periodic warming of Pacific Ocean waters that affects the weather worldwide. C. Fred and T. Andrus of the University of Georgia studied the ancient fish bones from refuse left about 6000 years ago by ancient peoples in Peru and found that ocean catfish lived in water that averaged 60 to 70 warmer than now and that there was little variation in temperature. He concluded that if El Nino was occurring at the modern rate, once every two to seven years, then the bones from the fish would have reflected the temperature variation.

Plant growth is resultant of all the environmental factors – climatic, physiographic, edaphic and biotic factors.

For a particular field – it is primarily a function of climate with temperature and light – being the most important factors. – Close relationship exists between plant phenology and both latitude and altitude.

Season is a period in a year, comprising few months during which the prevailing climate does not vary much. Growing season for a crop is more important for its yield and other management practices, to be followed.

Indian Meteorological Department has divided the year into four seasons.

Climate, in general, is the totality of weather during a longer period and over wider area. Agro climate can be defined as the conditions and effects of varying weather parameters like solar radiation, rainfall etc., on crop growth and production.

Climatic classification is a method of arranging various data of climatic parameters to demarcate a country or region into homogenous zones i.e., places having similar conditions.

Environment in which crops are grown dictates their final yield. Of these environmental factors, climate and weather the uncontrolable factors, have maximum influence on crop productivity. Vagaries of weather subject a crop to different ecological situations from year to year leading to differential responses of crops to input resources. This situation limits the use of costly inputs for realizing optimum yield. While weather itself cannot modify, the hazardous weather can often be mitigated by agronomic management. Therefore, the primary requirement for initiating agronomic measures against weather hazards is foreknowledge of weather situation that is likely to develop in an area.

Variation in field crops between years is associated with many factors. This is mainly due to weather, soil and management factors. There is complex reaction of weather variables among themselves as well as with other factors. Therefore, many attempts were made to study the effect of weather variable on crop yield through simulation modeling.

Crop yield is influenced by genetical (heredity), external (environmental) and management factors that occur during the crop growing period. The external environment is the climate which regulates and determines the growth and development and final output of crop plants. But, man has no control over weather, hence it is dominance over the success or failure of agricultural enterprises. According to the World Meteorological Organization, the weather induced variability in crop yield is as high as 50 per cent. Therefore, weather should be taken as one of the inputs in agricultural planning.

The earth has two motions. (1) Rotation and (2) Revolution. The earth rotates about its axis (west to eastward) with a speed of 464 m/s or 1669 km/hr. Its angular speed of rotation is about 7.29 x 10^-5 radians/sec or 0.26244 radians per hour. This rotation causes day and night and diurnal variations of weather.

The rotating earth revolves round the sun in an elliptical orbit (with the sun at one of its Foci) with a speed (orbital speed) of about 1.073 x 10⁵ km/hr or 29770 m/s or 29.8 km/s. This revolution causes seasons. It has been stated earlier that the apparent path of the sun with respect to the celestial sphere is called ecliptic.

Naturally Greenhouse gases are cover as blanket on the Earth and kept it about 33⁰C warmer than it would be without these gases in the atmosphere. This is called as the “Greenhouse Effect”.

Over the past century, the Earth has increased in temperature by about 0.5⁰C and many scientists believe that this is because of an increase in concentration of the main greenhouse gases viz., carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and fluorocarbons. People are now calling this climate change over the past century the beginning of “Global Warming”.

The communication system provides the forecaster with a large mass of figures; the next step is to put them into a suitable form for study. This is done by plotting the observations on a large outline map which in popular term is called a “Weather map” technically a “Synoptic chart” simplified synoptic charts appear in some newspaper.

A chart or map on which meteorological data presented and analysed is called a synoptic chart. Synoptic means having the same view point. The representation of the meteorological data in synoptic chart are atmospheric wind, temperature, pressure, cloud, precipitation, dew point etc., over a long area at a given local standard times.

Laparoscope

The term laparoscope derived from Greek word “Laparo” meaning “flank,” which is the side of the body between the ribs and hips (abdomen) and “scope” means to look at or examine. Laparoscope can be defined as an instrument through which structures within the abdomen and pelvis can be seen or a fiber optic device that consists of a flexible tube. Fiber optic scope is used to directly visualize the internal anatomy of a hollow organ. Laparoscope is used in laparoscopy and laparoscopic surgery. It has lenses like a telescope to magnify body structures, a powerful light to illuminate them and a miniature video camera. The camera sends images of the inside of the body to a TV monitor in the operating room. Specialized surgical instruments can be inserted through the laparoscope.

The early history of laparoscopy is unknown to many surgeons, but Hippocrates (460-375 BC) in Greece was first to describe endoscopy). He made reference to a rectal speculum. Hippocrates also advised injecting a large quantity of air into the intestines through the anus in the case of intestinal obstruction. He also advocated the insertion of suppository that was 10 digits long. These descriptions suggest that Hippocrates was well aware of ileus with intestinal obstruction and thought of several possible etiologies, including faecal impaction, intussusception, and sigmoid volvulus. Moreover, Hippocrates treated these life-threatening conditions with minimally invasive approaches.

The basic equipment for performing laparoscopy includes the laparoscope and corresponding trocar and cannula, light source, gas insufflator and the Veress needle. Laparoscope applicable for use in the small animals (dog, goat, sheep and lab animals) ranges in diameter from 2.7 to 10 mm in diameter, however, a 5mm diameter telescope is suitable for most cases and 2.7mm may be required for toy breeds of dogs and lab animals. A 0 or 30 degree direction of vision provides the operator with a “normal’ field of view and has proven most useful. Authors are using a 5-mm diameter 30-degree field of view telescope for routine diagnostic laparoscopy. The 5-mm diameter is adequate for most all small animal procedures in animals of variable size. The 0-degree designation means that the telescope views the visual field directly in front of the telescope.

Anaesthesia is an important criterion for doing laparoscopic procedure, which is being achieved by induction of general anaesthesia. However, in certain species, e.g. bovine, caprine etc., it can be done by preanaesthetic agent and infiltration of the local anesthetic agent at the site of the trocar placement. Selection of an anesthetic agent depends on the patient conditions, nature of procedure; time to be taken for the laparoscopic procedure and available facility. For the induction of the general anaesthesia follow the same procedure as in the conventional surgery viz. fasting, water withheld, preanaesthetic, fluid administration etc. Further, due to difference in the physiology of cardiopulmonary system of different animals, all these considerations varied from species to species and breed-to-breed. For instance cattle and buffalo are more prone to regurgitation and subsequent aspiratory pneumonia in general anaesthesia than those of dog and cat. While going for induction of general anaesthesia, an anesthetist should know about the different drug being used, their mechanism of action, effect on the different body system, their adverse effect and pure antagonist, if possible. Besides this an anesthetist should also know about the patient physiology and equipment for the administration of the anesthetic agents, because veterinary anesthetist is faced with numerous disturbances of cardiopulmonary and skeletal muscle function associated with general anaesthesia. For anaesthesia no anaesthetic agent is safe until and unless it is used by an experienced anesthetist.

Positioning of the patient/anesthesia

The patient is transported to the operating room and after general anesthesia the patient is placed in a desirable position. Some operating tables can be repositioned intraoperatively, allowing the surgeon to change the angle of the patient during the procedure. Special care should be taken to avoid nerve injury by malpositioning the patient, particularly along the popliteal fossa and brachial plexus. If any part of the patient is in contact with a metal object, patient may be at risk of electro surgical burns. General anesthesia is preferred for laparoscopy as it provides adequate muscle relaxation and assisted respiration particularly as the patient is in Trendelenburg position.

Laparoscopy is an operative procedure designed for the visual inspection of peritoneal cavity and biopsy of organs. Laparoscopy is a valuable diagnostic and therapeutic tool in clinical medicine. In the field of cholecystectomy, appendicectomy, vagotomy, hernia repair and adhesion release laparoscopy surgery offers significant advantages over open surgery in humans. For gynecological problems like ovarian cyst or in the case of oophorectomies and hysterectomies, laparoscopic surgery (‘scarless surgery’) is now considered a better alternative in addition to laparoscopic sterilization. Only in the last 15 years laparoscopy is widely used in different animal species for research and clinical diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. The first canine laparoscopy procedures were performed in the early 1900’s (Kelling, 1902). Anderson (1937) used dogs to perfect his skills prior to human clinical trials. The first clinical application of laparoscopy in dog’s involved ovarian function studies in the early 1960’s and Lettow reported the first laparoscopic liver biopsy procedure in a dog in 1972.

Laparoscopy is not only used in the examination of the abdominal cavity organs, surgical treatment but also in the diagnosis of the different disease conditioned by biopsy examination (removal of a sample of tissue from the living body for histopathological examination). Biopsy is indicated to ascertain a correct diagnosis, specific therapy and accurate prognosis. Laparoscopy is becoming an alternative method of monitoring biopsies of internal organs. It permits precise localization and accurate site on the various abdominal organs surface such as kidney, liver, spleen etc. Since, it is relatively noninvasive so it ranks highest amongst biopsy techniques. The technique allows visual control over the biopsy procedure, which considerably limits post biopsy complications and increases the likelihood of obtaining diagnostically useful biopsy specimens.

The most common indication for laparoscopy is to examine and biopsy the abdominal organs or masses. Additional diagnostic procedures that can be performed using laparoscopic guidance include gall bladder puncture to collect bile, contrast radiographic techniques for the diagnosis of bile duct obstructions, overdistension of gall bladder, portography and splenic pulp pressure measurement.

Among the various modern surgical methods, laparoscopy is now held as one of the most potent and promising aids for both diagnostic (laparoscopy) and therapeutic (laparoscopic surgery) use. Laparoscopy is an endoscopic procedure that bridges the gap between clinical evaluation and surgical exploration. The laparoscopic surgical techniques in both and human and veterinary medicine have grown tremendously. Laparoscopy requires a minor surgical intervention and it provides the only available practical means of making repeated direct observation of abdominal viscera. The advantage of surgical laparoscopy over the conventional open surgical laparotomy include faster patient recovery because of smaller surgical sites, decreased hospitalization, improved cosmetic, improved visualization of abdominal organs, lower postoperative morbidity with lower infection rates, and less postoperative pain and stress. Surgeons are commonly looking for more progressive and stressful surgical methods of sterilization in dogs, particularly in canine birth control programs in urban industrial areas. Demographically dense urban and industrial areas require effective animal birth control programs that can overcome the problems of hospitalization, postoperative complications and reduction in the overall cost of operation. In a large scale animal birth control program, the conventional methods of sterilization require a long period between capture of dogs and their release, due to the time taken for the surgical wounds to heal. In this aspect, keyhole surgery (laparoscopic surgery) can revolutionize the entire program, as it needs only a very small surgical wound, which usually needs no postoperative care or regular dressings.

Many surgeons have made attempts to develop minimally invasive surgical techniques with minimum blood loss and fewer traumas, to treat the disease process and minimize patient morbidity. Laparoscopic surgery may provide a wide field of its extensive application particularly in surgical sterilization of different animal species. Furthermore, high demographic urban and industrial area requires an effective animal birth control programme, which can overcome the problem of hospitalization, postoperative complications, and the overall cost reduction of operation. The sterilization of (both male and female) is effective measure in controlling the stray dog’s problem. Because the sterilization of either male or female alone is not effective and also sterilization of female consume more time when compared to male sterilization. To combat stray dogs in Animal Birth Control (ABC) programme, it is effective to sterilize the male also. Castration of male dogs by conventional open method has many disadvantages and postoperative complications such as hemorrhage, wound dehiscence, infections, maggot infestations and scrotal swellings etc. In a large scale Animal Birth Control programme, the conventional methods of sterilization requires a long period between capture of dogs and their release due to the time taken for the surgical wounds to heal. In this aspect, Keyhole surgery (Laparoscopic surgery) can revolutionize the entire programme, as it needs only very small surgical wound, which usually needs no postoperative care or regular dressings. It also avoids postoperative complications such as wound dehiscence, herniation, etc. and reduces the surgical stress to animal as well as recurring cost of each surgery.

Introduction

The most common indication for laparoscopy in zoo animal clinical medicine includes evaluation of liver disorders (e.g. cirrhosis, hepatitis, hepatomegaly), staging for cancer treatment (liver and peritoneal metastases), diagnosis of various peritoneal diseases (e.g. ascites), diagnosis of pelvic soft tissue diseases (e.g. ovarian problem, endometritis, pyometra,) and diseases of spleen and pancreas. The utility of laparoscopy in zoo animal practice is wide and it has been used in almost all the species with encouraging results. Laparoscopy is now most commonly used in zoo animal medicine to examine and biopsy of liver, gall bladder, kidney, spleen, pancreas, ovaries and prostrate. It provides an excellent means for visualizing the surfaces and colour. Even subtle color and texture changes can be readily detected. The liver is generally evaluated through a right lateral mid abdominal approach in canine and feline species of zoo animals. Abnormal gross liver changes that can be readily appreciated include hepatic lipidosis, glycogen leaden liver, metastasis or multifocal neoplasm, nodular hyperplasia, cirrhosis, cholangihepatitis, extra hepatic biliary tract obstruction etc. Using grasping forceps advanced through the second puncture cannula, the biopsy can be obtained quickly and safely in zoo animals. The pancreas can usually be visualized thorough a right abdominal approach and biopsy samples can be safely obtained.

Introduction

Laparoscopy is an operative procedure, performed through a keyhole opening with a rigid telescope that allows visual inspections and biopsy of the peritoneal cavity and its organs. Laparoscopy was first introduced in 1901 in human medicine. It has only been in the last 15 years that laparoscopy has been widely used in various animal species for research, clinical diagnosis and therapeutic purposes. Veterinary laparoscopy was widely used initially in the reproductive physiology in equine, nonhuman primate and various zoo and exotic species. The first clinical application of laparoscopy in dog involved ovarian physiology in the early 1960s, and Lettow reported the first laparoscopic liver biopsy procedure in a dog in 1972. The utility of laparoscopy in animal physiology particularly in reproductive physiology is wide and it has been used in almost all the species with encouraging results.

The use of sampling in making decisions about an aggregate (or population) is possibly as old as civilization itself. Sampling is first broadly classified into two categories known as subjective and objective. Any type of sampling which depends upon the personal judgement or discretion of the sampler himself, is called subjective sampling. But the sampling method which is governed by a sampling rule or is independent of the sampler’s own judgement is known as objective sampling. The main difficulty with subjective sampling is that the sampler is ignorant of the degree of representativeness of his sample or the accuracy of the final estimates of the population values obtained.

Objective sampling is further subdivided as non-probabilistic, probabilistic and mixed. In non-probabilistic objective sampling, there is a fixed sampling rule but there is no selection probability attached to the sampling unit e.g. selection of every 10th individual from a list, starting with the first, or selecting every 10th line in a paddy field. If however, the selection of the first individual is made in such a manner that each of the first 10 gets an equal chance of being selected, it becomes a case of mixed sampling, partly probabilistic and partly non-probabilistic). On the other hand, if for each individual unit there is a definite pre-assigned probability of being selected, the sampling is said to be probabilistic sampling.

2.1 Simple Random Sampling
The simplest and common most method of sampling is simple random sampling. In this procedure, the sample is drawn unit by unit with equal probability of selection for each unit at each draw. It is sometimes referred to as unrestricted random sampling.

3.1 Introduction
Out of all methods of sampling, the most commonly used procedure in surveys is the stratified random sampling. When population units are of heterogeneous nature and if we select a sample using SRSWOR scheme then the sample selected may not be the representative sample and the estimate worked out from that sample will not be the reliable estimate of the population parameter. The estimate of sampling variance of the sample estimator obtained from that sampling scheme may happen to be very high leading to get a less precise estimate of the parameter. In such type of population, to overcome these draw backs, we use another sampling scheme known as stratified random sampling which is defined as follows.

4.1 Introduction
In many surveys, information on an auxiliary (supplementary, ancillary or apriori) variable x, which is highly (positively or negatively)correlated with the variable y under study, is readily available and can be used for improving the sampling design. Stratified sampling and probability proportional to size (p.p.s) schemes are two examples of improved sampling designs, in which the use of data on auxiliary variable has been made. However in both the schemes, it implies that the information on auxiliary variable on individual sampling units is available prior to presentation of sampling design. In case, data on auxiliary variable for individual sampling units are not available but only the aggregate value for all units of auxiliary variable is available, the two schemes can not be used. In such a situation, the aggregate data on auxiliary variable can still be used at the time of estimation of parameters under consideration, provided the data on auxiliary variable for the sampled units can be easily obtained at the time of recording the values of the study variable. Such types of estimation are based on ratio, product, difference and regression methods of estimation.

5.1 Introduction
In random sampling it is assumed in prior that the population is divisible into a finite number of distinct and identifiable units and these units are known as sampling units. The smallest unit into which the population can be divide, is called an elementary unit (element) of the population. A group of such units is known as cluster. When such cluster is treated as sampling unit, then the sampling procedure adopted is known as cluster sampling. If the entire area containing the population under study is divided into smaller area segments and each element in the population belongs to one and only one such area segment, the sampling is sometimes known as area sampling.
Generally, identification and location of an element requires considerable time. However, once an element is located, the time taken for surveying a few neighbouring elements is small. Thus, the main function in cluster sampling is to specify clusters or to divide the population into appropriate number of clusters. Clusters are generally made up of neighbouring elements and hence elements within a cluster happen to be of similar nature. As a matter of fact, the number of elements in a cluster should be small and the number of clusters should be large. The required number of clusters can be selected either by equal or unequal probabilities of selection. All the units in the selected clusters are enumerated completely i.e. complete enumeration is made in all the selected clusters.

6.1 Introduction
So far we have considered the methods of sampling in which the successive units (elements or clusters) were selected with the help of random numbers. Now, we shall consider a new method of sample selection in which only the first unit of the sample is selected with the help of random number, the rest being selected automatically according to a predetermined pattern. The method is known as systematic sampling. It is operationally more convenient than simple random sampling and which at the same time ensures for each unit, equal probability of inclusion in the sample. The systematic sampling can also be termed as systematic random sampling because of the first unit of the sample being chosen randomly. The pattern usually followed in selecting a systematic sample is a simple pattern involving regular spacing of units.
Thus, suppose a population consists of N units and is serially numbered from 1 to N. Suppose further that N is expressable as the product of two integers k and n so that N=nk. Draw a random number i such that 1 < i < k and select the unit with the corresponding serial number and every kth unit in the population there after i.e. the sample consists the units bearing the serial numbers as

7.1 Introduction
In chapter 5, the cluster sampling has been discussed in which clusters were considered as sampling units and all the elements in the selected clusters were enumerated completely. It has been stated there that the cluster sampling is economical under certain circumstance but the method restricts the spread of sample over the population which results generally in increased sampling variance of the estimator under consideration. It is, therefore, logical to expect that the efficiency of the estimator will be increased by distributing the elements over a large numbers of clusters. Hence instead of observing all the units in the selected clusters, one may like to observe only few elements of the selected clusters. This will involve the sampling work to be done also within the selected clusters. If we do so, the process of selection will involve sampling work to be done at two stage, one for selecting the clusters where sampling units are the clusters and the second for selecting the units (elements) within the selected clusters where sampling units are the elements.
The process of sampling can be done at more than two stages. In this case the first stage unit will be larger than the second stage units and the second stage units will be larger than the third stage units and so on. Due to process of sampling in stages, such sampling is called “Multistage sampling.”

8.1 Introduction
We have already discussed in details how different sampling schemes can be employed to draw the representative samples suitable to many kinds of population whose sampling units differ in nature. From practical view points, however, it is often more important to be able to make decision about certain unknown characteristics of the population on the basis of informations available in the representative samples which are drawn from the parent populations. Such decisions taken, are known as the “Statistical decisions”. For example, we may wish to decide on the basis of sample data whether (i) One educational system is better than the other or not, (ii) A given six faced die is unbiased (balanced) or not, (iii) A new insecticide is really effective to control the attack of insects or not? etc. Such problems are dealt with in the theory of statistical decisions which uses the principles of sampling theory.

9.1 Introduction
In the preceeding chapter, we have studied the estimation part of statistical decision (inference) infered about the parameters of the population on the basis of information available in the sample observations drawn from the parent population under study. In the present chapter we discuss the problems related with the tests of statistical hypothesis and its significance about the population parameters under study. For understanding of the subject matter considered in this chapter, very clearly and easily, one must be familier with the statistical terminologies used in the subject matter. Hence we discuss the various notable terminologies with some suitable examples in a simple way for better understanding.

10.1 Normal Distribution
The normal distribution is the most widely used distribution in statistics. Almost all biological data including the agricultural data eg. crop yield, plant height, seed weight, seed size, protein percent in pulse, oil content in an oil seed etc are assumed to be normally distributed. In practice their distribution is rarely verified. In distribution theory, for large values of n, the number of trial (or sample size), almost all the distributions e.g. Binomial, poission, Negative binomial, chi square, student’s t, and Snedenor’s F distributions etc. are very closely approximated by normal distribution. It is a continuous distribution with mean and variance as its two parameters.

11.1 Introduction
In the preceding chapter 10, we have discussed in detail, the test procedures for which it has been assumed that the sample size n is large, (i.e n >,30). Those tests are also known as approximate tests or z tests. But in case when sample size n is small i.e. n<30, the approximate test fails to deal with such problem and we apply the theory of exact sample, for small sample tests. The exact sample tests however can be applied to large samples also though the converse is not plausible. In all the exact sample tests, the basic assumption is that the parent population is normally distributed.
In this part we will discusse in details the exact sample tests (based on exact sampling distributions namely snedekor’s F, student’s t and chi square (χ2) distributions. These distributions will be simply introduced in short because main emphasis has to be given only on the test procedures based on them.

12.1 Chi-Square Variate
The square of a standard normal variate is known as a chi – square variate or chi square statistic with one degree of freedom.

13.1 Introduction
In the previous chapters, we have considered different tests of significance based on normal distribution, F distribution, student’s t distribution and Chi-square (χ2) distribution which are frequently applied by the users of different disciplines of applied sciences and social sciences. In this chapter some more tests of significance are considered which have not been covered in those chapters. These tests are also based on t, F, Fisher’s z transformation, χ2 and some other test statistics are also discussed one by one in the following sections.

Abstract
Horticulture comprising a variety of fruits, vegetables, ornamental and medicinal crops has emerged in the recent times as a key sector of the Indian economy contributing substantially towards enhanced income, employment and welfare of the rural poor. A visible shift is seen in crop diversification across regions in favour of horticultural crops, especially vegetables over traditional cropping pattern comprising of cereals and pulses, since early 90s. Definitely higher profitability has been identified in comparison to cereals, increased urbanisation, enhanced living standards, besides the growing awareness for balanced nutrition as the main reason for such a shift. Commensurate with this trend has been a visible shift in enhanced R&D investments into horticultural R&D both from the public and private sectors. There is a growing need for the public sector research organisations like ICAR to increase their visibility and promote public private partnerships through innovative methods of research and development at this juncture.

Abstract

In recent years the quest for improving the quality of life has ventured into many aspects of utilizing plants for the aesthetic sense. One such is an increased utilization of flowers /flowering plants for beautification of homes, offices, gardens etc. The increased interest in use of cut flowers has brought challenge of bringing in varieties of natural flowers from different sources. India’s rich biodiversity also contributes addition of lot of new species to the cut flower industry. Banana and Plantains have been revered only for their utility as dessert fruit or staple food. But aesthetic dimension has never been much explored. Musa comprises more than 50 species and sub species traversed across the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Musa Ornata is one such plant, native to north eastern regions of India, belongs to the family Musaceae and section Rhodochlamys. It draws its attention by virtue of its bright inflorescence and its long lasting nature. It is a medium statured plant, hence suitable for gardens also. It is a fertile wild species, multiplies mainly through suckers and through seeds to some extent.

Abstract

An experiment was conducted in two replications with seventy germplasm lines during kharif 2012 at College of Agriculture, UAS, Raichur. The germplasm included 30 local varieties from different parts of Karnataka and 40 lines collected from AICRP, Jabalpur. Each entry was sown in three lines of 4 m length with 30 cm x10 cm spacing. Out of seventy lines sixty two entries were germinated. These lines were evaluated for seed yield and other ancillary characteristics viz., days to 50% flowering, days to maturity, plant height, number of primary branches, number of capitula, number of seeds per capitulum and seed yield. Among them, six entries performed better than check variety No. 71 and 12 entries performed better than another check variety RCR 18. Among all the entries N-84 (238.89 kg/ha) and SD-33 (215.28 kg/ha) produced high yield. Hadagali local and No. 71 (51.5 days) were found earliest in flowering and maturing varieties and SP 141 was late in flowering (71 days) and late in maturing. Tavaregere local (66.5 cm) and SP134 had less plant height (67.5 cm) and BMD 127 had highest (113.5 cm) plant height. The number of primary branches was more in the genotype Humnabad local (12.5). Number of capsules per plant was more in Humnabad local and ICP 76 (53.0) and number of seeds per capsule were more in BMD 115 (77.0).

Abstract

Agricultural practices prior to the eighteenth century were completely dependent on crop landraces and their mixtures. The knowledge of plant genetics and its application to crop improvement programmes led to increase the production potential of agriculture. Contrary to this, the wonders of crop improvement have resulted in the erosion of genetic diversity of many crops in farmers’ fields, including wheat, due to the replacement of landraces and farmers’ old cultivars with modern high-yielding cultivars.

Wheat is cultivated over an area of 216.6 million hectare globally and the production is 674.9 million tons. The seven largest producers of wheat are China, India, the Russian Federation, the USA, France, Turkey and Canada. During 2012-13, India produced 92.46 million tons of wheat from 29.65m ha area with productivity of 31.19q/ha (4th Advance Estimates, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of India). Three wheat species namely, T. aestivum L., T. durumDesf. and T. dicoccumSchubl are grown in India as commercial crops covering 95, 4 and 1 percent area, respectively. The cultivation of T. dicoccumis confined largely to the regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra.