eChapters

CALCIUM

Calcium is important in imparting structure and permeability to cell membrane. Deficiency produces general breakdown of membrane structure. Calcium enhances the uptake of NO₃ ^– N and interrelated with NO₃ ^– metabolism. It regulates cation uptake, required for cell elongation and cell division. Deficiency causes failure of terminal buds and apical tips of roots to develop. Blossom end rot of tomato, bitter pit of apples are due to calcium deficiency. Calcium is beneficial in imparting good soil structure.

It is immobile in plant. Very little translocation of calcium in the phloem is observed. Hence there is poor supply of calcium to fruits and storage organs. Downward translocation of calcium is also limited. Hence roots fail to enter the low calcium soils.

Technical Term                    Definition

Canal Irrigation System      The system in which irrigation water is supplied through irrigation canals network (main canal, submain canal, distributaries, and

                                            minors) from source of water (reservoirs) to point of application (agricultural lands)

India produces around 33 mt. of fruits and 50 mt. of vegetables annually (Chadha and Bhargava, 1997). It is estimated that 10 to 15 percent of total produce is available as organic waste for recycling in agriculture (Nand et al., 1996). In addition to processing of fruits and vegetables results in production of around 5 mt. of solid wastes (Table 66). Most of these wastes contain organic and plant nutrients (Table 66). There are still large amounts of wastes that are not being completely utilized. In most cases, these wastes are pro-duced from isolated sources and not by large centralized.companies. In practically all cases, horticultural and vegetable products are processed in relatively small canning plants and distributed for use generally in the same geographical area where the produce is grown, this is true world over since fruit and veg-etable wastes cannot be usually transported long distances in view of their bulk, high moisture and low to moderate feeding value relative to conventional feed.

Introduction

Canopy management is defined as managing plant architectural design as per need, using their inherent characteristics which is in accordance with a given set of conditions and resources to perform the plant maximum (Nath et al, 2014).The modern principles of sustainable fruit production systems focused on optimal use of natural resources (light, water, soil fertility) where the input (labour, energy, fuel, other material) and output (yield) are well balanced and the resources remain renewable.

Fruit orchards can be considered as artificial ecosystems converting the energy of photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) into edible, marketable fruits for human consumption. The core of this system is the bio-factory of leaves driven by the absorbed PAR. Several data support that the light interception is the basic factor for the modern orchard systems. Factors as LAI (Leaf area index), tree spacing, training and pruning systems, fruiting wood development, rootstocks and genotypes also have an important bearing on orchard efficiency.

The main objectives of canopy architecture is to develop strong tree framework, maximize utilization of light, accommodate more number of trees per unit area, maintenance of tree orchard uniformity and induce and sustain proper amount of well distributed fruiting terminals.

In order for the fruit production system to remain sustainable, the orchard system should favour the contributory role of an input of natural origin to the maximum possible extent, in improving the yield in the early years and provide high yields after the trees are mature until the planned age of the orchard. Recent development in the tree architecture has produced some promising tree training and pruning systems as well for high density fruit orchards.

Canopy management is central to achieving balanced vegetative growth, efficient light utilization, flowering, fruiting, and high-quality produce. This chapter explains the principles and objectives of training and pruning in horticultural crops. Different training systems are related to crop architecture, growth habit, planting density, and production objectives. Pruning techniques are discussed for regulating shoot growth, removing undesirable branches, improving air circulation, and maintaining productive canopy structure. Light interception and distribution within the canopy are also examined because photosynthetic efficiency strongly influences yield and fruit quality. Modern high-density orchards require precise canopy management to balance productivity, plant size, mechanization, and long-term orchard sustainability.

Capacity building represents a fundamental process through which individuals, organizations, and societies develop, strengthen, and maintain their abilities to perform functions, solve problems, and achieve objectives effectively over time. This multidimensional concept encompasses the enhancement of knowledge, skills, systems, and institutional arrangements that enable entities to fulfill their mandates and respond to emerging challenges. The United Nations Development Programme defines capacity building as the process by which individuals, organizations, and societies obtain, strengthen, and maintain the capabilities to set and achieve their own development objectives. This definition emphasizes the dynamic and sustainable nature of capacity building, highlighting its role not merely as a one-time intervention but as an ongoing process of organizational and individual growth. The conceptual foundation of capacity building rests on the understanding that sustainable development and organizational effectiveness require more than temporary fixes or external assistance. True capacity building involves creating endogenous capabilities that can be sustained and enhanced over time without continuous external support. This approach

Soil microorganisms in true sense are one of natural safety valves that regulate biogeochemical transformations in soil ecosystem. They act as natural agents for the disposal of organic matter. The various essential biological elements such as C, N, S and P, apart from H and O, form the primary building blocks of cells and their constituent elements are recycled through tiny microorganisms present in soil. More they are in quality and quantity, better recycling is expected by them. The organically bound materials are converted to simpler inorganic forms to complete biological cycle initiated during photosynthesis and other anabolic processes.

10.1 Introduction

A single-walled carbon nanotube (SW-CNT) is a nano scale tube formed by a cylindrical shell of single atomic layer of carbon atoms. Nanotubes have diameter of a few nm and length up to 100 nm so that they form extremely thin wires. The atomic structure of SWCNT can be formed by wrapping a stripe of single atomic layer of graphite sheet al.,ong a certain direction, and this direction determines the diameter and chirality of the nanotubes. Experimental and theoretical studies have found that these nano-meter sized CNTs have novel electronic properties, which can be metallic or semiconducting, depending on their radius or chiralities (Mintmire 1992, Hamada 1992, Saito et. al., 1992, Rao 1997, Wildoer 1998 and Odom et al., 1998).

All life on planet Earth is carbon centered; hereditary characters are controlled by DNA and RNA, growth by proteins and activities by energy from carbohydrates and fats – all these are carbon compounds. Not only this, but the life also ends as carbon compounds CO₂ or CH₄, depending on aerobic or anaerobic decomposition. Incidentally soil fertility also depends very much on soil organic carbon (SOC). In ancient days, farmers used to apply manure to maintain soil fertility and even now, urea, the nitrogen fertilizer used in the largest amounts, is a carbon compound. All living forms on the Earth including all plant and animal species and their activities are a part of global carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the earth.

Crop performance depends on how closely environmental conditions match genetic requirements. Cardinal temperatures define the minimum, optimum and maximum thresholds within which germination, growth and development occur. This chapter explains these thresholds and presents their relevance to major crops. It also examines rainfall, sunshine, humidity, photoperiod and other agroclimatic requirements determining where and when crops can be cultivated successfully. Knowledge of crop-specific requirements supports agroclimatic zoning, variety selection, sowing-date adjustment and assessment of climate-change impacts. Matching crops and cultivars to suitable environmental conditions reduces weather-related risk, improves resource efficiency and helps realize crop-yield potential under present and changing climatic conditions.

6.1 Introduction
The success of design thinking depends on its applicability in industries and service organization. The applications of design thinking applied to product development should focus on the needs of users. The design thinking can also be applied to design new processes as well as improve an existing process.
6.2 Case Studies
The section presents several case studies of applying design thinking in realities as listed below.
1. Design thinking in eye care
2. Design thinking in foundry
3. Design thinking in FMG company
4. Design thinking in auto industry
5. Design thinking at retail outlet
6. Design Thinking in Flight Reservation System
7. Design thinking in winding fabric on roller in textile mill
6.2.1 Case study: Design Thinking in Eye Care
Eye care is a crucial part of health care system. There are many factors that are responsible for poor eye vision. Normally in the early stages, viz. children and adults up to 40 or 45 years of age may have eye power issues, which are managed

Ion exchange is a reversible process by which a cation or anion held on the solid phase is exchanged with another cation or anion in the liquid phase. Soil mineral and organic colloidal particles have negative valence charges that hold dissociable cations. The power to retain cations at the surface of soil colloids is referred to as the cation exchange capacity (CEC). Cation exchange is a reversible reaction in soil solution, dependent upon negative charges of soil components arising from permanently charged or pH-dependent sites on organic matter and mineral colloid surfaces. The CEC is the sum of cations held by a kilogram of soil and is expressed in Cmol (p₊)/kg soil. In most agricultural soils, the cation-exchange capacity (CEC) is generally higher than the anion exchange capacity (AEC).

4.1 INTRODUCTION

All soil components contribute in some measure to cation exchange. The source, extent, and quality of the contribution of each to the cation exchange capacity is varied and complex. Ocasionally, reactions between components alter the extent and quality of cation exchange. Also, in some this is strongly influenced by the pH of the soil-water complex, and the electrolyte content of the soil solution. Indeed, when ‘simple and rapid’ methods, empirical or allegedly fundamental in origin, appear in the literature, they must be viewed circumspectly. Mostly, they provide an incomplete, or a one-sided, picture of the phenomenon. To justify his invention, the experimenter usually provides correlations with other intrinsic soil properties (e.g. the concentration by weight and the mineralogy of the <2 jxm particles, the organic matter content, the surface area) or with the reaction of soil with its environment (e.g. plant growth and composition). However convincing such statistical parameters might be for the population of soils investigated, they do not help elucidate, and may indeed mask, the true extent and quality of cation exchange.

This chapter deals with current views on the sources, extent and quality of cation exchange, and with comprehensive methods for evaluating these. The relationship between the properties thus observed and values obtained from simple and rapid procedures is considered.

1. Introduction
Animal experimentation remains a cornerstone of scientific research in many fields, from medical advances to pharmaceutical testing. However, the ethical treatment of laboratory animals has become a point of significant concern worldwide. India, through the Committee for the Control and Supervision of Experiments on Animals (CCSEA), ensures that ethical standards are maintained in research institutions. Established under the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change (MoEF&CC), CCSEA is tasked with overseeing the use of animals in experiments, ensuring that procedures adhere to ethical guidelines and international norms. CCSEA’s guidelines are in line with international standards set forth by organizations such as the International Council for Laboratory Animal Science (ICLAS) and the European Union (EU), but they are tailored to address local needs and conditions. The guidelines, which focus on the welfare of laboratory animals, emphasize the ethical review process, animal care, and the importance of minimizing animal suffering. They also stress the need for researchers to implement the 3Rs—Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement—to minimize the use of animals and ensure humane practices in research. This chapter explores the CCSEA guidelines in detail and compares them with animal welfare regulations from around the world, including the United States, European Union, Japan, and Australia. By understanding the similarities and differences between these regulations, researchers and policymakers can ensure the ethical treatment of laboratory animals on a global scale.
2. Objectives of CCSEA Guidelines
The main objective of the CCSEA guidelines is to ensure that laboratory animals are treated ethically and humanely while also supporting the validity and scientific rigor of research. The guidelines encourage researchers to prioritize animal welfare while minimizing unnecessary suffering. Specifically, CCSEA focuses on:
1. Ethical Treatment of Animals: Ensuring that animals are housed in suitable conditions, given adequate veterinary care, and provided with a comfortable environment to reduce stress.
2. Justification of Animal Use: Ensuring that animals are used only when necessary, and that their use is scientifically justified.
3. Pain and Stress Minimization: Ensuring that experimental procedures cause the least pain, distress and suffering possible.

Centrifugation is a technique that promotes accelerated settling of particles in a solid-liquid mixture by the application of centrifugal force. The device that accelerates the separation with the help of centrifugal force is known as ‘Centrifuge’. The centrifuge consists of a fixed base or frame and a rotating part in which the mixture is placed and is then spun at high speed.

Dryland agriculture limits the crop growth to a part of the year due to lack of sufficient moisture (Peterson et al., 2006). According to the Fourth five-year plan of India, dry lands are defined as areas which receive rainfall ranging from 375 mm to 1125 mm and with very limited irrigation facilities. Dry lands are economically fragile regions which are highly vulnerable to environmental stress and shocks. Degraded soils with low water holding capacities along with multiple nutrient deficiencies and depleting ground water table contribute to low crop yields and further leading to land degradation. In a country like India, 44 per cent of the total food production is supported by dryland agriculture, thereby playing a critical role in nation’s food security. With the increasing population, food production has to be increased. A real need to second green revolution has been envisioned, which can be achieved by improving the dryland agriculture.

Channel improvement increases or restores the ability of a river or drainage channel to convey floodwater safely. Natural or artificial channels may lose capacity because of sediment deposition, vegetation, debris, bank encroachment, irregular alignment, insufficient cross-sectional area, or excessive hydraulic resistance. Improvement can involve widening, deepening, straightening, clearing, lining, dredging, bank stabilization, or constructing additional waterways. This chapter discusses the purposes, advantages, disadvantages, and planning principles of channel improvement. It examines channel geometry, flow resistance, permissible velocity, sediment behaviour, erosion protection, and maintenance. The chapter also emphasizes that interventions must be evaluated carefully because poorly planned modifications can accelerate flow, destabilize banks, damage habitats, or shift flooding downstream.

Raman Spectroscopy

It is a spectroscopic technique based on inelastic scattering of monochromatic light, usually from a laser source. Inelastic scattering means that the frequency of photons in monochromatic light changes upon interaction with a sample. Photons of the laser light are absorbed by the sample and then reemitted. Frequency of the reemitted photons is shifted up or down in comparison with original monochromatic frequency, which is called the Raman effect. This shift provides information about vibrational, rotational and other low frequency transitions in molecules. Raman spectroscopy can be used to study solid, liquid and gaseous samples.

The nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) has led to major advances in the studies on the nature and chemical composition of soil organic matter. The technique has the potential for characterizing organic matter in the intact soil and its size fractions without the need for extraction and fractionation. Furthermore, it can provide information on the compositional changes in crop residues, peat and litter of the forest soils during biodegradation and humification.