eChapters

Introduction

We come across a variety of chemicals every day in a laboratory. While some of them are relatively safer, others are extremely hazardous. Thus, it is very important to know the potential hazards that can be caused by the chemicals present in the laboratory and the safety measures needed to be followed to avoid the hazards. Additionally, we should also be aware of the steps necessary to be taken on such hazardous situations. According to IUPAC, a hazardous chemical mean the chemical which has the potential to cause damage in various ways. In a laboratory, there are chemicals that might be irritant, carcinogen, respiratory fibrogen, systemic poison, asphyxiant, flammable, etc. which have the potential to cause hazard to the workers or environment. Therefore, it is important to use appropriate procedure to reduce the risk and protect the health/safety of laboratory personnel, the public and the environment.

Types of Hazards Associated with Chemicals

Chemical hazards: The hazards caused by chemicals can be broadly classified into three categories.

1. Health hazard: This is also known as toxic effects of chemical. The risk associated with a chemical in laboratory depends on the extent of exposure and the inherent toxicity of the chemical. Many chemical reactions form the product that might be much more toxic than the reacting chemicals. For example, inadvertent mixing of formaldehyde (a common tissue fixative) and hydrogen chloride results in the generation of bis(chloromethyl) ether, a potent human carcinogen. For most of the chemicals, the route of exposure (through skin, eyes, gastrointestinal tract, or respiratory tract) is more important (Figure 17.1) that must be considered during risk assessment.

Introduction

Harvesting and handling are the equally important activities as the entire production system as an individual activity. Therefore, proper harvesting and handling is essential to assure the farm income. There are various factors which directly affect the storage life of fruits and vegetables as below. The natural limits to the post -harvest life of all types of fresh produce are severely affected by other biological and environmental conditions.

Temperature: An increase in temperature causes an increase in the rate of natural respiration of all produce and food reserves and water content become depleted. The cooling of produce will extend shelf-life by slowing the rate of respiration.

Transpiration and water losses: High temperature, low humidity in the store and injuries to produce can greatly increase the loss of water from stored produce beyond that unavoidable lost from natural causes. Maximum storage life can be achieved by storing only undamaged produce at the lowest temperature tolerable by the crop and at the relative humidity appropriate for the produce.

Mechanical damage: Damage caused during harvesting and subsequent handling (i.e. injuries, impact bruising) increase the rate of deterioration of produce and renders it liable to attacks by decay organisms even under refrigerated storage. Mechanical damage to root crops will cause heavy losses owing to bacterial decay and must be remedied by curing the roots or tubers before storage. Curing is a wound –healing process.

Decay in storage: Decay of fresh produce during storage is mostly caused by the infection of mechanical injuries provoked by micro organisms, mostly bacteria and fungi. Furthermore, many fruits and vegetables are attacked by decay organisms which penetrate through natural openings or even through the intact skin. These infections may be established during the growth of the plant in the field but lie dormant until after harvest, often becoming visible only during storage or ripening.

Herbal Based Formulations presents plant-derived preparations used for pest, disease, viral-vector, growth, and development management. The chapter includes neem seed kernel extract, Vitex, onion, tobacco, chilli-garlic, ginger, custard apple, eucalyptus, lantana, mint, marigold, papaya, aloe, pomegranate waste, and other botanical preparations. It organizes formulations according to their intended agricultural function and provides examples of decoctions, extracts, sprays, and fermented products. The chapter demonstrates the diversity of locally available plant resources that can be incorporated into natural farming practices. It also highlights the practical importance of botanical inputs for reducing dependence on synthetic crop-protection products while supporting sustainable farm management. effectively.

10.1. Heterosis

Occurrence of a genetically superior offspring from mixing the genes of its parents.

Superiority of F₁ hybrids over its both parents in terms of yield and vigour.

Introduction

Arid and semi arid parts of the India are known as Seed Spices Bowl (Rajasthan and Gujarat) and contribute more than 80% of total seed spices production. Total 109 spices are listed by ISO and 63 spices are grown in India and out of which 20 are being classified as seed spices. Out of 20 seed spices, ICAR-NRCSS working on 10 most important seed spices namely cumin, coriander, fennel, fenugreek, ajwain, anise, caraway, celery, dill and nigella (NRCSS Vision, 2050). Seed spices also grown in some other states on considerable areas such as Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Punjab, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Since there is a large scope of seed spices by introducing them in new areas, the higher yields can also be achieved effortlessly by implementing new technologies. Among seed spices, maximum area is under cumin followed by coriander, fennel fenugreek, ajwain, celery, nigella, dill, anise etc. Being seasonal crops, these are grown extensively in rotation with food crops and also as inter/mixed crops under rainfed/irrigated conditions. All these crops mostly grown in rabi season. India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of seed spices in the world. Out of total area and production in spices, seed spices contribute about 51.79% of total area and 19.06% of production of spices in the country. The area under seed spices is about 1.74 million hectare and 1.45 million tonnes. India is consistent source of seed spices for importing countries worldwide. There has been ever increasing demand of seed spices and importing countries look at India for quality produce of seed spices.

INTRODUCTION

In biology, fertility is de?ned as capacity to produce off-springs; however, in Soil Science a ?ne difference is made between a fertile and a productive soil. Soil Productivity is the ability of a soil to produce a crop using the entire spectrum of its physical, chemical and biological attributes, while Soil Fertility refers to the capacity of a soil to supply all essential plant nutrients in the desired amounts. Thus, soil fertility management is basically the nutrient management. To put it in simple words, a productive soil is always fertile, while a fertile soil may not be productive for a variety of factors, such as lack of adequate moisture in drier regions or lack of adequate air due to water-logging for most upland crops. Of late, a term ‘ Soil Health’ has been introduced. Soil Health is an assemblage of chemical, physical and biological parameters that closely relate to native or acquired production capacity and sustenance of ecologically important regulatory role (Katyal et al., 2016). It is measured against prede?ned parameters of soil’s status of fertility, compact ability, erodibility and biology. This again tends to relate soil fertility to nutrient content, availability and management.

1.1 Introduction

With the rise in the global population, the demand for increased supply of food has motivated scientists and engineers to design new methods to boost agricultural production. With limited availability of land and water resources, growth in agriculture can be achieved only by increasing productivity through good agronomy and supported with an effective use of modern technology. Advanced agronomical methods lay stress not only on boosting agricultural produce through use of more effective fertilizers and pesticides, but also on the hygienic storage of agricultural produce. The detrimental effects of modern agricultural methods on the ecosystem have raised serious concerns amongst environmentalists. The widespread use of persistent pesticides globally over the last six decades has contaminated groundwater and soil, resulting in diseases and hardships in non-target species such as humans and animals. The first step in the removal of disease causing microbes from food products or harmful contaminants from soil and groundwater is the effective detection of these damaging elements. Nanotechnology can augment agricultural production and boost food processing industry through applications of these unique properties.

History of Soil Microbiology

There is enough evidence in the literature to believe that microorganisms were the earliest of the living things that existed on this planet. Man depends on crop plants for his existence and crop plants in turn depend on soil and soil microorganisms for their nutrition. Scientists from the beginning studied the microorganisms from water, air, soil, etc. and recognized the role of microorganisms in natural processes and realized the importance of soil microorganisms in the growth and development of plants.Thus, microorganisms have been playing a significant role long before they were discovered by man. Today, the soil is considered to be the main source of scavenging the organic wastes through microbial action and is also a rich storehouse for industrial microflora of great economic importance.

Unlike soil science whose origin can be traced back to Roman and Aryan times, soil microbiology emerges as a distinct branch of soil science during the first half of the 19^th century. Some of the notable contributions made by several scientists in the field of soil microbiology are highlighted in the following paragraphs.

Anton Von Leeuwenhoek (1673) discovered and described microorganisms through his own made first simple microscope with a magnification of 200 to 300 times. He observed minute, moving objects which he called “animalcules” (small animals) which are now known as protozoa, fungi, and bacteria. He for the first time made the authentic drawings of microorganisms (protozoa, bacteria, fungi).

1.1 Introduction
The concept of invention is the fundamental requirement for design thinking. Since the birth of mankind, people started inventing many concepts, which are mainly observations of facts and innovation of ideas for producing products that are useful to the society. The design thinking requires unconventional thinking to design processes for maximal operational efficiency of manufacturing the products, which give maximum satisfaction to customers with more value for money. Hence, the team that is involved in the design thinking projects may gain the required skills by knowing several inventions of the past. Hence, a review of inventions is presented in this chapter.
1.2 Tracing Inventions
The content at https://www.explainthatstuff.com/timeline.html gives a complete account of inventions starting from 4–5 billion years ago up to 2022. The article on solar cell energy gives an account of the sun started producing energy. About 1.2 million years ago, humans invented fire, which has been further innovated for biofuels, candles, IC engines, aviation engines, etc. In the 7th century B.C., ants were killed by burning in the heat produced by concentrated sun rays using magnifying lens. Greeks and Romans utilised burning mirrors to light candles during religious ceremonies in the third century B.C. About 3.5 million years ago, stone, wood, antlers, and bones were used by humans to make first kind of tools. These were further improved to make tools for machines. About 4000 BCE back, iron was used to make decorative ornaments. About 3500 BCE, people invented the concept of wheel, which brought quantum revolution in transportation.

Since bees are indicator species, their abundance on earth serves as a barometer for environmental conditions and the health of ecosystems. With up to 60,000 honey bees living in a single hive, each with a distinct job, the life of a bee is undoubtedly one of nature’s greatest miracles. There is much to be learnt from the exquisitely smart, well-organized lives of bees. Around the world, honey bee hives have been experiencing severe decreases over the past ten years, and local pollinating species are also experiencing significant losses. A growing number of studies point to a particular class of pesticides as the principal cause of the worldwide pollinator disaster, and if our government agencies and certain legislators don’t act quickly, the pollinator situation will only get worse.

Rachel Carson written Silent Spring 50 years ago, she expressed her concerns about the use of systemic insecticides like neonicotinoids. We are currently seeing f irst-hand how her forecasts come true

“The world of systemic insecticides is a weird world, surpassing the imaginings of the brothers Grimm… It is a world where the enchanted forest of the fairy tales has become the poisonous forest in which an insect that chews a leaf or sucks the sap of a plant is doomed. It is a world where a flea bites a dog, and dies because the dog’s blood has been made poisonous, where an insect may die from vapors emanating from a plant it has never touched, where a bee may carry poisonous nectar back to its hive and presently produce poisonous honey (Rachel Caron, Silent Spring)”.

Introduction
Horticulture, the science and art of cultivating fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants, is a vital component of agriculture that contributes significantly to food security, economic growth, and environmental sustainability. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of horticulture, exploring its various branches, including fruit and vegetable production, floriculture, landscape design, and greenhouse management. Horticulture is unique in its integration of scientific principles, artistic design, and business acumen, making it a dynamic and multifaceted field.
The chapter begins by introducing the fundamental concepts of horticulture and its importance in modern agriculture. It delves into the specifics of fruit and vegetable production, emphasizing the techniques and practices that enhance yield and quality. Floriculture and landscape design are also discussed, highlighting the aesthetic and environmental benefits of ornamental plants. The chapter further explores post-harvest handling and storage, crucial aspects that ensure the longevity and marketability of horticultural products.
In addition to traditional practices, the chapter addresses modern horticultural techniques, such as greenhouse management, which plays a crucial role in extending growing seasons and improving crop quality. Sustainable horticultural practices are also emphasized as key strategies for addressing global challenges like climate change and food security.
Horticulture is a branch of agriculture that focuses on the cultivation, production, and management of plants, particularly fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, and flowers. This chapter explores various aspects of horticulture, including an introduction to horticulture, fruit and vegetable production, greenhouse management, floriculture and landscape design, and post-harvest handling and storage. Horticulture plays a vital role in agriculture, encompassing the science and art of growing plants for food, aesthetics, and environmental enhancement. This chapter delves into the exciting world of horticulture, exploring the cultivation and management of fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, and flowers. Horticulture combines scientific knowledge, practical skills, and artistic creativity to maximize plant growth, yield, and aesthetic appeal. By studying horticulture, we can gain insights into the principles and practices that contribute to successful fruit and vegetable production, greenhouse management, floriculture and landscape

It is well known that organic matter plays a unique role in the binding of pesticides in soil, and that this phenomenon is usually the most important cause for interaction of pesticides in the soil environment. Fulvic or humic acids are most commonly associated with the binding interactions. Binding can take place with either the original pesticide or a transformation product, the reaction being induced by abiotic or biotic agents (microbial or plant enzymes). The reactions or processes involved are apparently the same as those responsible for the formation of humic substances, i.e., for the humification process.

The synthesis of humic substances is the least understood and the most intriguing aspect of humus chemistry. Studies on this subject are of enduring and continued research. Several pathways have been identified for the formation of humic substances during the decay of plant and animal remains in soil, the main ones being shown in Fig. 26.1.

6.1. Humus

Fraction of organic matter.

Complex and resistant mixture of brown or dark brown amorphous and colloidal organic substance.

6.2. Humus formation

1. Decomposition: Chemicals in the plant residues are broken down by soil microbes.

Simpler chemicals are metabolized into new compounds in the body tissue of soil microbes.

New compounds are subjected to further modification and synthesis as the microbial tissue is subsequently attacked by other soil microbes.

Three types of water movement within the soil are recognized. They are

1. Saturated flow
2. Unsaturated flow
3. Water vapour movement

Saturated flow

This occurs when the soil pores are completely filled with water. This water moves at water potentials larger than 33 kPa. Saturated flow is water flow caused by gravity’s pull. It begins with infiltration, which is water movement into soil when rain or irrigation water is on the soil surface. When the soil profile is wetted, the movement of more water flowing through the wetted soil is termed percolation.

Hydraulic conductivity can be expressed mathematically as

Technical Term                        Definition

Hydrology                               Hydrology is the science of water derived from Greek wordî hydro + logosî i.e., water + sciences and hance defined as the science which deals with occurrence, distribution and circulation of atmospheric water through unending Hydrologic cycle.

All agriculture universities have three main Directorates – Education, Research and Extension. Of the three, I have often observed that Extension Department comes in for maximum criticism. ‘Loose links’and ‘need to do much more in transfer of knowledge and technology’ are frequently emphasized at various levels – especially in meetings with farmers groups.

This is understandable – as it is said that less than 10% - often less than 6%, of lab scale knowledge and development reach the farmers fields in developing countries and even in many ‘developed’ counties. The situation is much more challenging when we consider a large population of small and marginal farmers – who as we saw can play extremely important role in eco-agriculture. A large percent of such farmers – women and men are practicing eco friendlyagriculture without realizing it. Their ‘ignorance’ can be converted in to advantage and new opportunity. The age old extension practice of reaching farmers through meetings, visit , seminars, camps, demonstrations all have limitations and need to be ‘scaled up’. New developments in information and communication Technology offer a great opportunity for a big jump in reaching the unreached. Again to alarge population of ‘Green Revolution’ – there is a new hope and opportunity.