eChapters

In this chapter we will look at the Expert system which can guide and assist an individual once it is provided with the enough Knowledge to do so. Here we will discuss about expert system and its architecture with proper steps of making an expert system in any field by several tools which are available to do so. For expert systems the most important is Knowledge Engineering which is the collection of Knowledge from an expert and Engineering it in such a form that a machine could understand it.

Introduction

One of the pioneering fields of AI study is Expert Systems (ES). It is proposed by researchers in the computer science department of Stanford University. An expert system is a computer system which emulates a human expert’s decision-making skills. Expert systems are developed by reasoning through information structures, representing laws, rather than through traditional procedural code, in order to overcome complex problems.

Expert Programs use professional expertise systematically to address human expert problems. An expert is an individual with experience in a specific field. The expert has expertise or special credentials which most people do not learn or care about. An expert can solve or solve problems more effectively than people can solve. Expert System actually emulates all these qualities of expert and solve the problem in a better way and fast.

Today, Expert System (ES) is used in the fields of finance, research, engineering, technology, medicine and many others where there is a well-defined problem area. The fundamental principle is that an expert method should also define the steps to illustrate why a problem can be solved. Unless an individual can justify his reasoning for Expert System.

Introduction

In geographical location, the observations taken in proximity tend to be more alike than observations made at points that are far apart-that is, the values tend to be correlated. An area of study that takes this sort of spatial consideration into account is called geostatistics. A primary motivation for sampling is to make meaningful estimates of values at nearby positions in space and time. When values are assumed independent, the best estimate for an unmeasured point will be the mean. However, for correlated values nearby values are estimated by interpolation. The simplest interpolation scheme is a nearest neighbor estimate for which the unknown values are based on the closest measured location. Inverse distance is another sort of interpolation technique where weights are estimated based on the inverse distance squared. Kriging is a geostatistical interpolation technique that considers both the distance and the degree of variation between known data points when estimating values in unknown areas.

It makes the best use of existing knowledge by taking account of the way that a property varies in space through the variogram model. In its original formulation a kriged estimate at a place was simply a linear sum or weighted average of the data in its neighbourhood. Weights are based on the distance between the measured points, the prediction locations, and the overall spatial arrangement among the measured points. Since then kriging has been elaborated to tackle increasingly complex problems in mining, petroleum engineering, pollution control and abatement, and public health. The term is now generic, embracing several distinct kinds of kriging, both linear and non-linear.

Labile fractions of soil carbon (C) refer to the fraction of soil carbon that are easily altered by microbial activities. These fractions serve as sensitive indicators to changes in management induced soil quality and are grouped under active soil C pool. The method described by Weil et al. (2003)estimates changes in biologically active soil C using a dilute KMnO . This is an improvement over the method used by Blair et al (1995), where a very high concentration (0.333 M) of KMnO₄ was used.

Organic carbon present in soil can be very labile, labile or non-labile. This procedure measures the extent of lability of soil organic carbon through relative degree of oxidation by K₂Cr₂O₇.

Introduction
According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) is a quality system that ensures the nonclinical safety studies are appropriately designed, conducted, and documented to generate reliable data. The laboratory techniques are defined as the processes and practices that are recommended for equipment use in the laboratory, while laboratory methods are based on established scientific principles involving biology, chemistry, and physics, and encompass all aspects of the clinical laboratory from testing the amount of cholesterol in blood to analysing DNA to growing microscopic organisms that may be causing an infection. One of the most significant parts of laboratory techniques and laboratory methods is the proper validation of the equipments (old or new equipments) as well as all the testing procedures/ methods (established or newly developed methods). Analytical method validation is a critical process to ensure the quality and safety of products. The objective of the validation of an analytical method is to demonstrate that it is suitable for its intended purpose; the results are authentic and universally acceptable. An analytical method is suitably well considered when the results generated through different method are consistent, reproducible, and thus, reliable.
The validation is required when
• A new method has been developed
• Revision of established method
• Use of established methods in different laboratories and different analysts, etc.
• Comparison of methods required
• When quality control indicates method changes

2.1 Beakers

Beakers are the one of most important vessels used in laboratory which is made up of heat resistant glass.

They are available in various capacities ranging from 10 to 3000 mL.

For convenience of pouring solution, spout is provided in the beaker.

They are used to perform titrations & for boiling solutions, etc.,

Beakers are constructed in tall and low forms.

For efficient nutrient use, most important factors are the timely supply/recycling of adequate amount of nutrients to the production system and its retention and release by soil for timely and ready availability in the root zone for its mobility to the plant in the presence of optimum moisture content in the soil. For keeping the applied nutrients retained in the root zone one has to reduce the soil erosion and leaching losses through technologies available in hand which include direct measures of soil and water conservation and maintain the soil aggregation and porosity through suitable tillage and organic residue recycling. For movement of nutrients into plant system we need to ensure optimum soil moisture content through water management.

Introduction

Land capability classification is one of the very important issues in terms of sustainable land use. Land is the most valuable natural resource which needs to be harnessed according to its potential. Land use planning and management is a known strategy for achieving sustainable development. A properly prepared land use plan based on sound scientific and technical procedures, and land utilization strategies can summarize rationally the future demands. This accompanied by a strong planning process, where communities and various stakeholders are involved, can strengthen the decision making process on allocation and utilization of land resources. Land capability is referred as suitability of the land based on inherent characteristics of the soil associated land features, and climatic conditions that limit their safe use under agriculture, forestry etc. Land capability classification is a system of grouping soils primarily on the basis of their capability to produce common cultivated crops and pasture plants without deteriorating over a long period of time. The capability classification is one of a number of interpretive groupings of soils made primarily for agricultural purposes, mainly based on the inherent soil characteristics, external land features and climatic factors that limit the use of land for agricultural purposes. The land capability is governed by the different land attributes such as the type of soil, its depth and texture, underlying geology, topography, hydrology, etc. It also includes soil irrigation classes and ground water table position to decide overall suitability of lands for sustained use under irrigation. The classification points out automatically the possibilities and limitations of the climate and soil for each crop and type of agriculture.

Soil conservation in hilly areas

Soil erosion is a major problem on hills because of steep slopes. It has been estimated that about 6 million ha of land requires intensive conservation measures in Himalayan and sub-Himalayan regions of Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. Anthropogenic activities like shifting cultivation, deforestation, over grazing accelerate soil erosion in hilly ecosystem.

9.1 Planning land use

Modern techniques such as mechanization, better crop varieties, and the scientific use of fertilizers can transform agriculture, but before they can be effective the use of the land has to be right. No techniques will make it possible to grow a good crop if the soil conditions are unsuitable for that crop, and no conservation works can prevent erosion when the basic cause is trying to grow crops on land which is really unsuitable for arable farming (plate 9.1). The object of land use planning is to determine the characteristics of land, its possibilities, and its problems, and try to match these to a form of land use which will be sustainable and economically productive.

9.7.1 Some planning principles

An often quoted definition is that ‘planning is the conscious process of selecting and developing the best course of action to accomplish an objective’. In the case of Land Use Planning the objective is the efficient intensive use of land resources.

It is difficult to imagine any field of human activity where some form of planning is not essential to achieve the objective. Consider going on holiday. Certainly it is possible to come home from work one evening, throw some clothes into a suitcase, go to the railway station or airport and buy a ticket to the first holiday resort which comes to mind. Some fortunate people may indeed enjoy so unplanned a holiday but for most of us it would be disappointing to find oneself in a mountain holiday resort without climbing boots, or on a sunny beach with only winter clothing in the suit case. No, one is more likely to achieve the objective of a happy holiday by a planned approach and this means going through a logical sequence of steps, i.e.

Technical Term              Definition

Land Use Capability     Capability is the inherent capacity of land to perform given at a level for a general use

Land is merely an area of the earth’s surface comprising all physical, chemical and biological environments that influence the land use (FAO ,1976). Land refers not only to soil but also to climate, landforms, hydrology, geology, natural vegetation including fauna and flora. The land use simply means management of a land for specific uses to meet the human needs in all rural, urban and industrial context, whereas the land use plan refers to a coherent set of decisions about the ways to achieve the desired level preferably on economic background. Thus, the land use planning is the systematic evaluation and assessment of a land and associated attributes for the purpose of identifying the best land use options beneficial to landowners or users without degrading the land resources or environment. It includes not only the landowner or users, but also the policy or decision makers as well as economic experts for financial measures from planning stage or logistic planning to execution.

Land cover

Relates to the type of feature present on the surface of the earth e.g., Fields, trees, concrete high ways.

Land use

Relates to the human activity associated with a specific piece of land. The same land would have a land cover consisting of roofs, pavements, grass and trees. The land use in an area is really an intervention by the people over the existing natural eco-environment for satisfying their needs.

Land cover is distinct from land use despite the two terms often being used interchangeably. Land use is a description of how people utilize the land and socio-economic activity - urban and agricultural land uses are two of the most commonly recognised high-level classes of use. At any one point or place, there may be multiple and alternate land uses, the specification of which may have a political dimension.

Sustainable management of soil and water resources is essential for food, nutritional and environmental security of the country. The total and partial factor productivity of agricultures in India declined over years because of continued degradation of natural resources. The process leading to land degradation are generally triggered by excessive use of land and water resources to meet the growing demand of population for food, fibre and fodder. Various anthropogenic activities leading to accelerated land degradation through salinization, flooding, water logging, erosion of water and nutrients, drought reduced agricultural productivity and nutritional security in the country. These problems can be overcome by optimum utilization of land adopting suitable management practices. For effective land management practices, the soils should be interpreted in forms of their land capability, suitability for irrigation and crop growth. This will not only help the farming community and extension specialists, but also to the administrators and policy makers for using soils for sustainable agricultural production.

3.1. Land use classification

3.1.1. Classes

Capability class is the broadest category in the land capability classification system.

Class codes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are used to represent both irrigated and non-irrigated land capability classes.

Class 1: Soils have slight limitations that restrict their use.

Class 2: Soils have moderate limitations that reduce the choice of plants or require moderate conservation practices.

Class 3: Soils have severe limitations that reduce the choice of plants or require special conservation practices or both.

4.1. Area approach

National Credit Council was set up in December, 1967

Study group in October, 1968 under chairmanship of Prof. D R Gadgil found that Commercial Banks had penetrated only 5000 villages as of June, 1967 and its share was 1% compared to co-operatives.

Recommended the adoption of an area approach for bridging the spatial and structural credit gaps.

All India Rural Credit Review Committee 1969 also endorsed the view the Commercial Banks should increasingly came forward to finance activities in rural areas.

RBI accepted recommendation and formulated Lead Bank Scheme (LBS) in December, 1969

Each district had been assigned to different banks (Public and private) to act as a consortium leader to coordinate branch expansion and credit planning.

Nationalization of 14 major Commercial Banks in July 1969 (Another 6 banks in 1980), paved the way for branch expansion network in unbanked rural and semi urban areas.

Leaf analysis and its importance

Improved fertilizer management for crops is important in view of today’s need to reduce production costs, conserve natural resources, and minimize possible negative environmental impacts. These goals can be achieved through optimum management of the fertilizer applied. Understanding the crop nutrient requirements and using soil testing to predict fertilizer needs are keys to fertilizer management efficiency.

Plant tissue testing is another tool for use in achieving a high degree of precision in fertilizer management. Timely tissue testing can help diagnose suspected nutrient problems or can simply assist in learning more about fertilizer management efficiency. Leaf analysis (also called stem leaf analysis, tissue analysis or foliar analysis) is the most precise method of monitoring plant nutrient levels. While soil analysis reveals the levels of essential soil nutrients, leaf analysis shows the grower exactly what the plant has successfully absorbed. Leaf analysis is especially helpful in detecting nutrient deficiencies before they affect plant health and yield.

As we have seen how artificial Intelligence can be useful in agriculture but the nest question always come in mind is that from where and how we can start to learn and what are the model of learning an artificial Intelligence. As Artificial Intelligence is a huge part of Computer Science which means we need an language as medium to perform it and we always prefer Python for that which is very dynamic and easy to learn. In this chapter we will learn about python basics so that in further implementation of artificial Intelligence it will be helpful to us.

I. Introduction

Python is a remarkable language that can claim to be easy and strong. You will be amazed to see how simple it is not to focus on the language you are programming, but on solving the problem. Guido van Rossum was the creator of the Python language which is named after the BBC show “Monty Python’s flying Circus”.

Python is formally introduced as:

“Python is an easy to learn, powerful programming language. It has efficient high-level data structures and a simple but effective approach to object-oriented programming. Python’s elegant syntax and dynamic typing, together with its interpreted nature, make it an ideal language for scripting and rapid application development in many areas on most platforms.”

Soil-rejuvenation power of legumes in crop rotations has been known in several parts of the world since ages. It is mentioned in the Indian agriculture of the Chalcolithic period (ca 1000 BC) (Raychaudhuri and Mira, 1993), in Chinese agriculture in the Han dynasty (ca 2nd century) (Hsu, 1980) and in Roman agriculture (White, 1970). Legumes can be ?tted in cropping systems in India in a number of ways, such as, a crop in a cropping system, a catch crop in an intensive cropping system, an intercrop and as a green manure. A brief discussion on these follows.

A levee is an elongated embankment constructed along a river, stream, or floodplain boundary to prevent floodwater from entering protected land. Levees can safeguard settlements, agricultural fields, industries, roads, and public infrastructure, but they do not eliminate flooding and may transfer risk downstream or cause severe damage if overtopped or breached. Their design depends on expected flood level, freeboard, soil properties, seepage conditions, foundation stability, alignment, and available construction materials. This chapter explains levee functions, classifications, advantages, limitations, and structural components. It also addresses seepage control, slope protection, erosion, settlement, failure mechanisms, inspection, maintenance, and the importance of combining levees with forecasting and evacuation planning.

1.1. Livestock breeds

Denotes and established group of animals / birds having the similar general body shape, colour, structure and characters which produced offspring with same characters.

1.1. Cattle

1. Indigenous breeds

Milch: Sindhi, Sahiwal, Gir and Deoni

Dual: Hariana, Ongole, Tharparkar, Kankrej

Draught: Kangayam, Umblachery, Amritmahal, Hallikar