eChapters

Introduction

Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy and helps the system as a whole for socio-economy development of the country. Despite 51 per cent of arable land of total geographical area and about 100 million hectares of potential irrigated area, the highest for any country in the world, unfortunately the contribution of agriculture to the grass domestic product is as low as 22 per cent. India is endowed with a wide spectrum of agro climatic conditions and a large variety of fruit crops ranging from tropical, sub­tropical and temperate are grown. In India, the area under fruit crops is 3.5 Mha with a production 45MT which accounts 9.6 % of total worlds production and ranks 2nd in fruit production (Anon., 2005). The country has become self-sufficient in food grains production, second largest producer of fruits and vegetables, but still the per capita consumption per day is hardly of the order of 70 g for fruits and 140 g for vegetables.

Introduction

The field of public finance is a critical aspect of economic governance that delves into how governments manage their revenue, expenditures, and debt to fulfill societal needs and ensure economic stability. Public finance encompasses the financial activities of governments at various levels, including national, state, and local, focusing on the income and expenditure of public authorities and the underlying principles guiding these financial transactions.

Significance of Public Finance

• Role in Society: Public finance is a branch of public policy and economics concerned with how governments raise funds, allocate resources, and address economic and social needs.

• Government Functions: Governments provide public goods and services like infrastructure, defense, education, and social welfare programs that are essential for societal well-being.

• Market Correction: Public finance enables governments to address market failures by providing public goods that individuals or businesses would not produce efficiently on their own.

• Income Redistribution: Through programs like social security and welfare, public finance helps moderate income disparities by supporting those in need.

In India farming was traditionally subsistence in nature but with the passage of time, the nature of farming has changed to commercialized system faming. With the commercialization of farming, price of the product along with its quality has become an important factor in marketing. Quality and safety issues have also gradually gained importance as people in general have become conscious and aware of the hygiene, health and safety issues related food and food products. Perishability of food items requires more emphasis on its quality and safety. The formal system of regulations in quality and safety standard has been mainly the contribution of the developed world. The International market has set a high standard of quality and safety of agriculture products. In the country the standardization of quality and safety of agricultural products has gained momentum in the last 10-15 years.

An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The positive nuclear charge is due to the presence of protons which carry a mass of 1 and a charge of +1. Besides protons in the nucleus, there are neutrons which are heavier than protons. They carry no charge. Comparatively electrons have no mass (1836 times lesser than that of a proton) but they carry a charge of –1. Hence, the whole mass of an atom is likely to be concentrated in the nucleus.

A ratio is the comparison or simplified form of two quantities of the same kind. This relation indicates how many times one quantity is equal to the other; or in other words, ratio is a number, which expresses one quantity as a fraction of the other. For example, the ratio of 1 to 2 is 1 : 2. The numbers forming the ratio are called terms. The numerator, “1”, in this case, is known as the antecedent and the denominator, “2”, in this case, is known as the consequent.

In this article we will learn the approach applicable to solve various problems on ratios and proportions. In the next few lines you will go through some important concepts related to ratio problems and the methods you should apply to solve those problems. It is always better to solve as many problems as you can to boost your confidence. Some important points are given below to remember;

2.1 Function

A variable ‘Y’ is said to be the function of an other variable ‘X’ if for every value of ‘X’ there exists a corresponding value of ‘Y’. It is denoted as Y = f (X). The function f (X) is a relationship between two variables (Y, X) which associates any given number x with another number y.

A function is a mapping or transformation of x into y and is denoted by y = f(x). The variable X represents the elements of the domain ‘D’ and is called the “independent variable”. The variable ‘Y’ represents the elements of the range ‘R’ and is known as the “dependent variable”.

Introduction

The National Commission on Agriculture defined agricultural marketing as a process which starts with a decision to produce a saleable farm commodity and it involves all aspects of market structure of system, both functional and institutional, based on technical and economic considerations and includes pre and post- harvest operations, assembling, grading, storage, transportation and distribution. The Indian council of Agricultural Research defined involvement of three important functions, namely (a) assembling (concentration) (b) preparation for consumption (processing) and (c) distribution.

Introduction

Aquaculture has developed quickly over the last three decades to turn into important economic activity world wide. It has been attracting heavy investment due to the availability of sound technologies and limitless potential for export especially shrimp. There are several forecasts on demand for aquatic foods and it is expected that it will be 183 million tonnes by 2030. As the capture fishery production is stagnating at around 90 million tonnes, aquaculture is seen as the only alternative to bridge the widening gap in demand and supply. Globally, Landings from worldwide aquaculture has increased 10-15 % per year in the last two decades and this growth was due to the combined effects of scientific farming, availability of infrastructure facilities, changing consumer preferences and export market potential to developed countries.

Shrimp farming is relatively new and its introduction on a commercial scale can be traced to the early seventies. Despite the recent introduction, one third of the world shrimp production is from farmed shrimp. The shrimp producing countries are found in all regions based on FAO statistics including Europe and Middle East. The major to five shrimp producing countries are China, Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, and India. The future increase in world aquaculture production will be driven by China with South Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean and the Europe providing small increases.

The discussion on the methodology has been conducted to comprehend the idea, procedures, and approaches employed for outlining the study, gathering information, analysing data, and interpreting the findings for the disclosure of Concrete evidence and the development of hypotheses. This chapter focuses on the methodology and process employed in the study, which is divided into eight key sections.
The study randomly chose the villages of Bhomrapara, Mitrapur, and Maniktala in the Gram Panchayat-Kasthadanga-1 of the Haringhata block in the Nadia district of West Bengal as the research locale. The area was chosen for the study due to several reasons: a) There is ample opportunity to gather relevant data for the current study, b) The researchers are familiar with the local people and language, c) The area is easily accessible to the researcher, and d) The student researchers have close connections with the area, its people, officials, and local dialects.
Pilot Study
Prior to commencing field work, preliminary research was undertaken to gain insight into the area, its inhabitants, institutions, communication and extension systems, as well as the existing information. The perspective and attitude of individuals towards the notion of climate change.
Sampling design
The sampling design for this agro-ecosystem study is meticulously crafted to address the pressing issues of agricultural sustainability. At the state level, West Bengal is purposively selected due to its severe agro-ecosystem degradation from high-intensity agriculture, necessitating in-depth research. Within the state, Nadia district is chosen for its similar challenges, reflecting the broader concerns observed at the state level. Further, the Haringhata block is identified purposively because of its specific issues: intense rice and vegetable farming, significant groundwater depletion, declining productivity, and reduced levels of livestock and organic carbon. These factors highlight the urgent need for Conservation Agriculture in this area. At the gram panchayat level, Kastodanga-1 is selected for its accessibility, which facilitates efficient

12.1. Meaning
The rate at which output change as the quantity of all input are change. It is based on long run law in which all factor are variable and factor proportion do not change.
Stage of Return to Scale
1. Constant return to scale
2. Increasing return to scale
3. Decreasing return to scale
1. Constant return to scale
• In constant return, Change in proportion of input is equal to the change in proportion of output.
• A constant return to scale is also known as linear homogenous production function of the first degree.
• Example: Industry.

23.1 Introduction

The following Frank Kright, the knowledge situation can be classified into the following logical possibilities:

23.2 Perfect Knowledge

There would be no need for farm management experts if knowledge was perfect. If there were so technology, prices and institutional behaviour would be known with certainty for any period of time in the nature. But the concept of perfect knowledge is a fallacious one and does not represent the real world situation.

ABSTRACT

Family farming is the blending of experience, skill, managerial qualities, business strategies and finally economic independence because this type of farming involves the blending of different minds of the family members. There is not any doubt in saying that youth are the of future. This is the time between childhood and adulthood. It is the time when a young individual get out of their dreamy world of childhood and face some of the most complicated realities of the world. Family farming is still facing the problem of urbanization and unemployment. But youth of present scenario are the solution of every problem because skilled youth of rural background can drive future economic growth as they are innovative in bringing and applying new ideas on a large scale. Rural youth are enthusiastic and they can act as good leaders as their orientation is scientific. Youth support family farming as well as perform gender specific activities. They are said to be the key to sustainable and innovative development. Investment in rural youth is the key to country‘s progress and boost economic opportunities. Rural youth of today want that their capabilities should be utilized for producing food and for conserving productive resources in rural environment. Their mental skills make them different from others so Govt. should adopt such policies that mark the correct value of their skill. This research paper emphasizes the role of rural youth in agriculture and family farming and what are their aspirations from this sector.

ABSTRACT

Agriculture is an important sector of Indian economy that contributes about 17% to the total GDP and provides employment to over 60% of the population. But, the villages are becoming poorer and poorer and only older generations are left there to do the agricultural operations. During the past two years, cost of food items like grains, pulses, oil and vegetables are increasing, month after month. Family farming is the best approach to produce agricultural products economically, utilizing locally available resources and crop residues and manpower very efficiently and sustainably. Family farming is a way of life” - there are unique advantages - the security of access and control over resources, meeting multiple needs of the family – food and income, the relationships with nature, the bonding with the past, present and future; ensuring freedom from external exploitation as well as freedom to do your own way. Family farms as multipurpose enterprises have been serving as buffers in times of disasters, as glue of social bonding, often functioning as a ’value web’ between farming families and communities. The United Nations defines youth as young men and women from age 15 to 24. The present situation of rural youth in developing countries can generally be characterized by illiteracy, lack of educational and training opportunities, unemployment, under-employment and the flight of large numbers of rural youth to the cities. There are serious challenges too – stifling and non supportive policy environment, lack of extension system to handle the farmer’s distinct needs and capacities, and lastly ‘converting’ family farms to be ‘business like’ models. However, successful pilots can become big impact programmes, for instance, as in Andhra Pradesh, through NGO-GO collaboration. Hence, rural youth need to be prepared in: (a) improving their capabilities to produce food and to conserve productive resources in the rural environment, (b) improving skills and abilities in undertaking income-generating activities in rural areas, (c) relieving population pressure and improving nutrition and the well-being of farming families and (d) developing leadership and the ability to work well with others in group and community situations.

Meaning of Advertising

According to Concise Oxford Dictionary, the word to advertise means to make generally or publicly with a view to increasing sales. The word ‘advertising’ is derived from the Latin word ‘advertese’ which means ‘to turn (the mind) to’. Advertising means providing adequate knowledge about some special product/service/idea to potential consumers so that they are stimulated to buy it. Adequate knowledge about a product means to let people know the name of the product, its function, size, price and place of its availability. The organizations providing service or idea give information regarding where, how and on what conditions their service or idea can be made available and how the same can be helpful to the people. Today is the age of competition. Consumers buy commodities after careful consideration. Under the circumstances, manufacturers are faced with the problem of how to motivate the consumers to buy their product. To find a solution to this problem, manufacturers make use of advertising.

ABSTRACT

Small holdings in developing countries have long been associated with poor farming practices, intensive labour and low income, which make the sector unattractive to a new generation of farmers. Lack of youth interest and involvement in agriculture affects the sustainability and survival of family farms. This interest in farming is further strengthened by ICT providing access to markets and information to boost production. Researchers found that youngsters easily grasp the ICT applications, acquire information, and jump onto new market opportunities. Considering the above facts the present paper will address the issue of the role that ICT can play in invoking the interest of youth in farming.

Keywords:ICT, youth, farming, sustainability

ABSTRACT

With the developing world still depending on agriculture to a great extent and rural people depending on it for their livelihood, it comes as no surprise that family farms have been the focus of development in recent times. Family farms have been legacy for most of the farmers and along with it being principal livelihood option for many, the increasing need of agricultural extension services for these farms become more important. But at the same time, the huge gap between the number of famers or farm households and the extension personnel is a reality. And to bridge this gap, Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) can play a significant role. Another purpose it serves is making agriculture attractive to the young people engaged in farming, mostly by compulsion. ICTs like web portals, mobile phones and social media are the most popular and most widely used and can enhance the interaction among researchers, extension personnel and farmers. The youth today are hooked to the internet and their 1^st major activity on the web is social networking. Also, mobile phones are the most popular form of ICTs as has been proven by the sheer number of subscribers worldwide. And these tools, used appropriately, can change the whole structure of agricultural communication. ICTs can be an important part of communication strategies, connecting the youth to peers and professionals. It is true that the ‘apps won’t plough the fields’ but they will definitely help the youth do the job better. ICTs can prove to be a great catalyst in engaging agricultural community in family farms making agriculture attractive and sustainable again.

ABSTRACT

The future of any country depends on how the youth are moulded. Employment is the key to economic and social development and providing youths with job opportunities is a major issue for all countries irrespective of their level of development. Villages have become a source of cheap labour for growing cities. Meanwhile, rural communities are deprived off the services of rural youth. Increasing pressure on land is compelling youth to get out of farming. In India, there are 639 Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) located in every district and also known as the AKC (Agriculture Knowledge Centre). One of the mandate of KVKs is to impart vocational trainings to rural unemployed youth, landless laborer, school dropout boys and girls. The Hisar Districthas been divided into nine blocks and three sub divisions covering 274 villages, with average annual rainfall about 400 mm and the soil type issandy to sandy loam. Sh. Joginder Singh s/o Sh. Mahender Singh, 10+2 passed, 26 yrs. old youth was engaged in traditional cultivation of agricultural crops on his farm at village Saharwa (Hisar). In 2010, he came in contact with KVK, Hisar and got trainings from this centre. He was motivated to diversify his traditional system of agriculture with integrated farming system of vegetable production+ dairy farming+ horticulture+ boundary plantation of agro-forestry multipurpose tree species. With this diversified farming system, his income increased many folds i.e. Rs. 35000/acre to Rs. 4.40 lac/acre/year.

Introduction

According to the “Mutually Aided Cooperative Societies (MACS) Act” of 1995 or as a “Farmers Producer Corporation” (FPC) under the “Companies Act” of 2013, a Farmer Producer Organisation (FPO) is often a society or company made up of farmers who are actual producers of a specific crop or commodities. Depending on the demands of the producers and the demand potential to adopt a value chain approach to boost farmers' and producers' economic and social benefits, these organisations are established at the cluster, block, district, or state level. The Indian government, state governments, development organisations, and central institutions have recently placed a greater emphasis on farmer-producer firms. Many of the nations’ Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) have been aiding in the development of cooperatives and farmer-producer organisations.

Steps in formulation of FPOs

1. Preliminary Assessment and Need Identification

• Identify the group of farmers interested in forming an FPO.

• Conduct a preliminary assessment of the needs, resources, and aspirations of the farmers in the target area.

• Determine the type of products or crops that the FPO will focus on.

ABSTRACT

The family farm exists as one of the most important factors in food production in India. Rural areas in the country are home to 73 per cent of India’s population, most of whom rely upon agriculture for their livelihood. Whole families run the farms and, because of the rural location, are less educated than their urban countrymen. Youth are increasingly losing interest in agriculture and migrate to urban areas in search for job opportunities in other sectors, yet in some countries opposite trends were observed recently. Access to adequate productive resources, goods and services, and job opportunities would convince youth to stay closer to the family farm. Access to education would be essential for youth to be able and willing to stay in rural areas and engage in agriculture. Young Farmers’ Organizations can effectively represent the needs and interest of rural/agricultural youth in policy making processes. Women are the backbone of family farming. They play multiple roles, undertaking both productive and reproductive activities in agricultural/rural households. Women’s large contribution of work in family farms is not recognized, in terms of income earned and access to productive resources and assets. Families in agriculture have multiple vulnerabilities. Both women and men need adequate access to productive resources to make rural societies more resilient. If women get equal access to resources, they could improve their yields which would reduce food insecurity of agricultural/rural households. Government should develop policies, programs and projects that target specifically young farmers and provide them with privileged access to land, credit and technical knowledge. Improve educational instruments and support alternative models for knowledge transfer in rural areas, e.g: agroecological education in local schools. Youth should actively participate in farmers’ organizations in order to let their voice heard and better access agricultural resources - including credit and finance. Young farmers should pay special attention to the conservation of natural resources. Governments should invest in young farmers for tomorrow’s food security.

ABSTRACT

The United Nations has declared 2014 as the International Year of Family Farming. The central role of increased participation by youth in agriculture is necessary and vital to facilitate food and nutrition security. Rural Family farming generates food and income for hundreds of millions of rural people, including the poor and marginalized fostering jobs for men, women and young people, both within their family farms and in related enterprises along food and agricultural value chains. It provides models of adaptability and resilience for more sustainable food production and is socially and culturally part of communities and territories constituting regions and as such underpins national food security in most countries safeguarding and protecting the environmental assets and natural resources, biodiversity and cultural heritage. Under the right conditions and with supportive policies, family farmers particularly the youth and women have proven to be innovative, productive and resilient, especially if they are supported to use agroecological practices that are based on their own resources and priorities. This makes youth in family farming key players in tackling the pressing issues of our time, such as hunger, climate change and biodiversity loss. Family farming includes all family-based agricultural activities, and it is linked to several areas of rural development. Family farming is a means of organizing agricultural, forestry, fisheries, pastoral and aquaculture production which is managed and operated by a family and predominantly reliant on family labour, including both men and women. Rural youth, smallholder and family farmers face numerous challenges in the prevailing times such as climate change and climate variability; lack of tenure security in a context of increasing competition for land and water (population growth, urbanization) and inadequate governance of land tenure; limited access to financial resources, inputs, technology, training, research and advisory services, and education, price volatility and limited access to markets among a few. As an opportunity the availability of real income generating options in agriculture can offer rehabilitating young persons whose alternative options are neither socially acceptable nor responsible. Simultaneously, the vibrant and expanding market for primary and secondary agricultural commodities offers tremendous opportunities for young people to earn good income from agricultural activities.